Chapter Two

X-ray
imaging

.
EM Spectrum
EM Spectrum
 EM Waves for Medical Imaging

• X- rays and Gamma rays

• have energy in the KeVs to MeVs: Ionizing Radiation
• used in X-rays/ CT & Nuclear medicine
• Radio waves
• used to stimulate nuclei in MRI to generate EM radiation
• Visible light
• used in radiography to improve the efficiency of photographic film to
detect X-rays
• used in optical coherence tomography (OCT) : eye diagnosis
• used in microscopic and spectroscopic imaging methods
 Summary : Atomic Structure

• An atom = ( a nucleus, electrons)

• Nucleons = ( protons; neutrons)
• Mass number A = # of nucleons
• Atomic number Z= # protons
• Charge of electron = 1.602 x 10 -19 Coulombs
 Orbits of Electrons

 Ground state: electrons are in the lowest orbital shells and

within the lowest energy states within each shell.

Ground state: electrons are in the lowest orbital shells and within the
lowest energy quantum states within each shell.
 Electron Binding Energy
• The energy required to remove an electron completely from the atom is
called its binding energy.
• For an electron to become ionized, the energy transferred to it from any
form ionizing radiation must be equal or exceed the magnitude of electron’s
binding energy.
• Binding energy of typical elements:

Hydrogen: 13.6 eV
Air: 29 eV
Lead: 1KeV
Tungsten: 4 KeV
• The binding energy of electrons in a particular orbit increases with the
number of protons in the nucleus (Z).
 Properties of X-Rays

X-rays:
• Are invisible
• Can be diffracted
• Create light emission in different substance
• Short wavelength
• Extremely high energy
• Able to penetrate through materials
• Absorbed when passing through matter
• Produce secondary radiation in all matter through which
they pass
 Units of X-ray Radiation

• The measure of the quantity of x-radiation is “Rontgen”(R)

• The curie (Ci)is the old standard unit for measuring the activity of a
given radioactive sample.
• The Becquerel’s is the more recent SI unit for radioactive source
activity (1 curie = 3.7 x 101 101010Becquerel's)Becquerel‘
• Rad: Measurement unit of absorbed dose ( SI: Gray)
• rem: Measurement unit of the relative biological damage as results
from the absorbed dose (SI: sieverts(Sv))
 Production of X-rays

X-rays were discovered in 1895 by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen (1845-1923)

who was a Professor at Wuerzburg University in Germany.
Radiation Hardness, Wavelength and Voltage
 Cont.
Hard X-rays

i) Have short wavelength

ii) Are more penetrating
iii) Are produced by high voltage
iv) Are produced by fast moving electrons

Soft X-rays

i) Have longer wavelength

ii) Are less penetrating
iii) Are produced by low voltage
iv) Are produced by slow moving electrons.
Production of x-ray
 Characteristic X-Ray Spectrum

Example : for tungsten

Example : for tungsten

Cont…

Characteristic K x-rays are emitted only when the electrons coming to

the target exceed the binding energy of a K shell electron.
Acceleration potentials must be greater than
 69.5 keV for Tungsten targers or
 23.2 keV for Rhodium targets

to produce K characteristic x-rays

Many electron transitions can occur from

 Adjacent
 nonadjacent shells in the atom

A subscript of α indicates transition is from an adjacent shell

A subscript of β indicates transition is from an nonadjacent shell
 Parts
• X-Ray tube
• Operating Console
• High Voltage transformer
• Tube Head or Protective Housing
• Collimator
• Patient Table
• Grid
• Bucky
• Radiographic film
X-RAY TUBE
 The major components of the modern X-ray tube are:

The x-ray tube provides an environment for x-ray production via :

• bremsstrahlung and characteristic radiation mechanisms

• cathode (electron source)

• anode (acceleration potential)
• rotor/stator (target device)
• glass/metal envelope (vacuum tube)
 Typical operation conditions are:

• Acceleration Voltage: 20 to 150 kV

• Electron Current: 1 to 5 mA (for continuous operation)
• Electron Current: 0.1 to 1.0 A (for short exposures)
X-ray tube and its component
 Cathode

• The source of electrons in the x-ray tube

• which is a helical filament of tungsten wire surrounded by a
focusing cup.
• The filament circuit provides a voltage up to about 10
V to the filament
• producing a current up to about 7 A through the
filament.
 The cathode consists of:
A. a spiral of heated low resistance R tungsten wire (filament) for
electron emission. Wire is heated by filament current
I = U / R.
( U  10 V, I  3-6 A )

Electrons are released by thermionic emission, the electron

current is determined by the temperature which depends on the
wire current.

B. a focusing cup with a negative bias voltage applied to focus

the electron distribution.
The anode is the target electrode and is maintained at a
positive potential difference Va with respect to the cathode.
Electrons are therefore accelerated towards the anode:
E = wVa
Upon impact, energy loss of electrons takes place by scattering
and excitation processes, producing heat, electromagnetic
radiation and X-rays.

 0.5% of the electron energy is converted into X-rays.

Because of the relatively low X-ray production efficiency, most
of the released energy comes in form of heat:

heat generation is a major limitation for X-ray machines

high melting point material with high X-ray output

• tungsten (high melting point) good overall radiative emission

• molybdenum (high melting points) high emission of characteristic X-rays
Cont…

Thermionic emission :
• The process of electrical resistance heats the filament and releases
electrons.
• The electrons liberated from the filament flow through the vacuum of
the x-ray tube when a positive voltage is placed on the anode with
respect to the cathode.
• Adjustment of the filament current control the tube current.
 Two types of filament
1. Small filament
• Enable the smallest focal spot to be used, consistent with KV/mA
setting.
2. Large filament
• Enable the largest focal spot to be used, consistent with
KV/mA setting
Adjustments of the filament current control
the tube current
 Focusing cup
• Surrounds the filament and ,
• shapes the electron beam width
• It can be biased or unbiased.
• This produce a small interaction area (focal spot) on the anode
 Space charge cloud

• When no voltage is applied between the anode and the cathode of the x-
ray tube, an electron cloud
For tube voltages of 40 kVp and lower,
• and only a portion of the free electrons are instantaneously accelerated
to
the anode
• this operation of the x-ray tube is space charge limited
 emission-limited operation

Above 40 kVp, the space charge cloud effect is overcome by:

• the applied potential difference and
• the tube current is limited only by the emission of electrons from the
filament
 Anode

• metal target electrode that is maintained at a positive potential

difference relative to the cathode
Tungsten (Z = 74) is the most widely used anode material
because of
• its high melting point and
• high atomic number
 Cont…

• Molybdenum (Mo, Z = 42) and rhodium (Rh, Z = 45) are

used as anode materials
• These materials provide useful characteristic x-rays for
mammography.
• An alloy of 10% rhenium and 90% tungsten provides added
resistance to surface damage.
 Anode Configurations
X-ray tubes have
• Stationary anode configurations
• rotating anode configurations
 Stationary anode configurations
• The simplest type of x-ray tube has a stationary (fixed) anode
• It consists of a tungsten insert embedded in a copper block .
The copper serves a dual role:
• supports the tungsten target, and
• removes heat efficiently from the tungsten target

Drawbacks
• the small target area limits the heat dissipation rate and
• consequently limits the maximum tube current and thus the x-ray flux
Stationary anode
 Rotating anodes

Are used for most diagnostic x-ray applications, mainly because

of :
• their greater heat loading and
• consequent higher x-ray output capabilities
• Electrons impart their energy on a continuously rotating target,
spreading thermal energy over a large area
• Uses induction motor to rotate the anode target
• A bearing-mounted rotor assembly supports the anode disk
• Rotation speeds of motor are 3,000 to 3,600 for low speed and
9,000 to 10,000 for high speed revolutions per minute (rpm).
Rotating Anode X-ray Tube
A molybdenum stem attaches the anode to the rotor/bearing
assembly, because:
• molybdenum is a very poor heat conductor and
• reduces heat transfer from the anode to the bearings
• Heat energy is emitted from the hot anode as infrared
radiation, is cooled by surrounding oil bath.

The focal track area of the rotating anode is equal to the product of
:
• the track length (2πr) and the track width (Δr)
The allowable instantaneous heat loading depends on :
• the anode rotation speed and
• the focal spot area
Interaction of x-ray with matter
There are four major types of interactions of x- and gamma-ray
photons with matter

• Rayleigh scattering,
• Compton scattering,
• photoelectric absorption, and
• pair production.
 Rayleigh scattering

• The incident photon

interact with and excites
the total atom,
• The electric field of the
incident photon's
electromagnetic wave
expends energy, causing all
of the electrons in the
scattering atom to oscillate
in phase.
• The atom's electron cloud
immediately radiates this
energy, emitting a photon of
the same energy but in a
slightly different direction
 Compton scattering

This interaction is most likely to occur between:

• photons and outer ("valence") shell electrons
The incident photon interact with electron and cause:
• electron ejected from the atom, and
• photon is scattered with some reduction in energy

The energy of the incident photon (Eo) is equal to

the sum of the energy of the scattered photon
(Ese) and the kinetic energy of the ejected
electron (Ee-):
Eo= Ese + Ee-
 Photoelectric absorption
All of the incident photon energy is transferred to an electron,
which is ejected from the atom.
The kinetic energy of the ejected photoelectron (Ee) is equal to:
• The incident photon energy (Eo) minus the binding energy
of the orbital
electron (Eb)
Ee = Eo - Eb
 Pair production

• can only occur when the energies of x- and gamma rays exceed 1.02 MeV
• an x- ray interacts with the electric field of the nucleus of an atom
• The photon's energy is transformed into an electron-positron pair
• The electron and positron lose their kinetic energy via excitation and
ionization.
Attenuation of X-rays depends on

• Atomic number
• Mass Density
• Wavelength
• Thickness
Attenuation of x-ray
Home work -1
Home work- 2
 FILTERATION

• is the removal of x-rays as the beam passes through a layer of

material.
Attenuation of the x-ray beam occurs
• inherent filtration of the tube and
• added filtration
 CONT....

Inherent filtration includes:

• the thickness (1 to 2 mm) of the glass or
• metal insert at the x-ray tube port
• attenuation by housing oil and the field light mirror in the
collimator assembly.
Added filtration refers to ;
• sheets of metal intentionally placed in the beam to change its
effective energy
Added filters attenuate :
• the low-energy x-rays in the spectrum that have virtually no
chance of penetrating the patient and reaching the x-ray
detector
 Collimator

• adjust the size and shape of the x-ray field emerging from the
tube port
• Adjustable parallel-opposed lead shutters define the x-ray field
(x-ray attenuation) mimics the x-ray beam
• Placed between the x-ray tube and the patient
 GRIDES

• inserted between the patient and the film cassette

• in order to reduce the loss of contrast due to scattered radiation
• Consist of thin lead strips separated by spacers of a low
attenuation material.
• The lead strips are so designed that the primary radiation from
the x-ray focus can pass between them while the scattered
radiation from the object is largely attenuated.
Basic instrumentation of X—Ray Generator
The principal function of the x-ray generator is:
• to provide current at a high voltage to the x-ray tube.
•provides up to 20,000 to 150,000 V needed for x-ray
production. Transformer are main components of x-ray
generators;
• it convert low voltage into high voltage through a
process called electromagnetic induction.
 BASIC X-RAY CIRCUIT

The types of x-ray circuit

• Main circuit and
• Filament circuit
 Main Circuit

PRIMARY CIRCUIT–Control Panel

• Main Switch: The switch that generates the power to the x-ray
tube.
• Exposure Switch: a button to start an exposure
• Timer: Device used to end the exposure at an accurately
measured preset time.
SECONDARY CIRCUIT–high voltage transformers,
rectification & x- ray tube.
 Filament circuit

• FILAMENT CIRCUIT–varies current sent to the filament in

order to provide the required mA value.
• Filament circuit adjusts to mA ratings (50,100,200,etc.)
Rheostat (variable resistor)
• this variable resistor adjusts the current going to the filament.
• represented by the mA stations on the control panel
• step-down transformers to energize the filament, and
• a focal spot size selector switch to energize either the large or
the small filament
The major components of x-ray generator
• Control panel
• Transformer assembly

Control panel
Permits the selection of technique factors and initiation of
radiographic exposures
• mA
• kV
• exposure time
• focal spot size
 Transformer assembly

• Transformer
• Rectifiers
Three major circuits:
• High voltage circuit
• The filament circuit
• Timer circuit
 Autotransformer

• a single coil of wire wrapped around an iron core.

• It has a fixed number of turns,
• The autotransformer operates on the principle of self-
induction
• Supplies precise voltage to the high voltage(secondary) and
filament circuits
• Is used in the x- ray circuit to provide a small increase in
voltage before the step up transformer.
• A switching autotransformer has a number of taps on the input
and output sides to permit small incremental increases or
decreases in the output voltage.
• The switched autotransformer is used to adjust the kVp
produced by an x-ray generator
The output voltage from the autotransformer is equal to:
• the input voltage multiplied by the ratio of secondary to
primary
turns.
switched autotransformer
 Rectifier circuits

• is an electrical apparatus that changes alternating current into

direct current.
• rectifier circuits to ensure proper electrical polarity at the x-
ray tube.
• A rectifier restricts current flow in an x-ray tube to one
direction (from cathode to anode), thereby preventing damage
to the x-ray tube filament
Two types

Half wave

Full wave
Bridge
 half-wave rectified

• in the high-voltage circuit allows electron flow during only one

half of the AC cycle and halts the current when the polarity is
reversed.
• As a result, a "single-pulse" waveform is produced from the
full AC cycle and this is called a half-wave rectified system.
 Full wave Rectifier

• Full-wave rectified systems use several diodes (a minimum of

two or four in a bridge rectifier) arranged in a specific
orientation to allow the flow of electrons from the cathode to
the anode of the x-ray tube throughout the AC cycle
• X-rays are produced in two pulses per cycle
• Three-phase 6-pulse and 12-pulse generator systems
also use rectifiers in the secondary circuit.
• In a three-phase system, multiple transformers and multiple
rectifier circuits deliver direct current to the x-ray tube with
much less voltage fluctuation than in a single-phase system.
 High voltage generator properties

• full-wave rectification better than half-wave

• three phase better than single phase
• twelve-pulse, full-wave better than six-pulse, full wave

Types of Generator
• single-phase x-ray generator
• Three-phase x-ray generators
• constant-potential generator
• high-frequency inverter generator
 single-phase x-ray generator

uses a single-phase input line voltage source (e.g.,220 V at 50

Hz), and produces either a single-pulse or a two-pulse
DCwaveform, depending on the high-voltage rectifier circuits.
 Three-phase generators
• use a three-phase AC line source
• bridge rectifier on the high-voltage side in each circuit
produces two pulses per cycle for each line, resulting in six
pulses per cycle for a three-phase six-pulse generator
 CONT...

1. another group of three transformers in a "wye" transformer

configuration and additional bridge rectifiers provides a
doubling of the number of pulses, or 12 pulses per cycle, in
the three-phase 12- pulse generator
 Three-phase generators

• deliver a more constant voltage to the x-ray tube and

• can produce very short exposure times.
• are more expensive than single-phase systems,
• are more difficult to install,
• have a large amount of bulky hardware and
electronics,
• and occupy significant floor space.
 X-Ray Detectors

• Photographic film: Converts x-rays via chemical process

• Phosphor screen: Converts x-rays to visible light
• Image intensifier: Increases light intensity to detect low dose in
real
time
• Digital detectors (CCD): Direct detection and digitization of x-
rays to
improve image quality
 X-Ray Detectors: Photographic Film

When light hits the film, the chemicals break up

 Radiographic film processing

• When the film is processed, it is exposed to

several different chemicals solutions for
controlled periods oftime.
• Development - The developing agent gives up
electrons to convert the silver halide grains to
metallic silver.
• Stopping the development - The stop bath
simply stops the development process by
diluting and washing the developer away with
water.
 The Latent Image
• The silver halide grains (emulsion), fixed in a thin
gelatin
film, oxidize when exposed to photons.
• The exposed film precipitates the fine silver
particles, making
them opaque to visible light.

• Careful attention to exposure time and development

produces a degree of blackening across the film
which varies with the original variation in photon flux
and thus produces a 2D latent image.
X-ray film
The end …..

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