Module 4

Integrating IKS in teaching

– Introduction
Dr Apramita Chand
1st Nov 2024
14th Nov 2024
Indian Knowledge Systems
 The Indian Knowledge System (IKS) involves the systematic transfer of
knowledge from one generation to the next, based on Vedic literature,
the Upanishads, the Vedas, and the Upvedas.
 The National Education Policy (NEP) acknowledges this rich heritage
of ancient Indian knowledge and thought as a guiding principle,
highlighting its structured approach to knowledge transmission.
 The Indian Knowledge System (IKS) encompasses Jnan, Vignan, and
Jeevan Darshan, which have developed through experience,
observation, experimentation, and thorough analysis. This time-
honored practice has had a profound impact on various facets of
society including education, arts, administration, law, justice, health,
manufacturing, and commerce.
 Additionally, it has left a significant imprint on classical and other
languages of India, communicated through texts, oral traditions, and
artistic expressions
 Visit iksindia.org to see latest research, books, policies, documentaries
 Indian Knowledge systems
 IKS encompasses tribal knowledge alongside Indigenous and
traditional educational methodologies, which span various
disciplines including mathematics, astronomy, philosophy, yoga,
architecture, medicine, agriculture, engineering, linguistics,
literature, sports, games, and governance.
 The curriculum will feature specialized courses on tribal ethno-
medicinal practices, forest management, and traditional organic
farming techniques.
 Additionally, an engaging elective course on Indian Knowledge
Systems will be offered to secondary school students. The policy
emphasizes the importance of firsthand experience with India's
rich diversity for learners.
 Plans are in place to incorporate simple activities, such as student
excursions to different regions of the country, which will not only
enhance tourism but also foster an understanding and appreciation
of India's cultural diversity, traditions, and the knowledge inherent
in various regions of the nation
 Classifying IKS:
 According to era: ancient (before Mughals), medieval (Islamic) and
modern (Post British)
 Based on discipline, like Architecture, arts, etc
 Based on modern locations. India is huge, and focus could be set
on Indian Knowledge Systems from specific states and
communities.
Another source of ancient knowledge would be curricula of ancient
universities like Nalanda, Taksha Shila, Vikramshila and Vallabhi.
 Ancient scriptures (shastras) could be classified
 Knowledge from the epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata
Modern day Indian Knowledge
systems
 Indian Knowledge Systems NEP 2020 highlights that Indian knowledge
would include knowledge from both ancient and modern India.
 The relevant elements will be incorporated in a scientific manner, and
knowledge would include tribal knowledge and indigenous and
traditional ways of learning.
 It’s also important to focus on grassroots innovators and artisans in
India, a majority of whom continue to reside in comparatively smaller
cities and towns. Most of these are practitioners without formal training,
relying on their skills, innovations, and orally acquired knowledge.
 Two such premises aimed at highlighting the grassroots innovators are
the VCTEL-NPTEL (a digital resources library) and the Honey Bee
network (a virtually collaborative network of people and communities
generating ideas and products)
 Honey Bee started as a project around a decade ago and aimed at
scouting for new innovations done by farmers, artisans etc. at the
grassroots level, seeking to preserve the fast-eroding traditional
knowledge. It consists of around 10,000 innovations documented by an
NGO called SRISTI, done in journeys called Shodha Yatras.
Vision of IKS integration as per NEP
 A greater emphasis on music, arts, and crafts throughout all levels of school
 early implementation of the three-language formula to promote
multilingualism
 teaching in the home/local language wherever possible
 conducting more experiential language learning; the hiring of outstanding local
artists, writers, craftspersons, and other experts as master instructors in
various subjects of local expertise
 accurate inclusion of traditional Indian knowledge including tribal and other
local knowledge throughout into the curriculum, across humanities, sciences,
arts, crafts, and sports, whenever relevant
 a much greater flexibility in the curriculum, especially in secondary schools
and in higher education, so that students can choose the ideal balance among
courses for themselves to develop their own creative, artistic, cultural, and
academic paths
 Under ‘Ek Bharat Shrestha Bharat’, 100 tourist destinations in the country will
be identified where educational institutions will send students to study these
destinations and their history, scientific contributions, traditions, indigenous
literature and knowledge
 Inclusion of IKS in teacher education curriculum
What can be gained?
 Pride in tradition
 Solving contemporary problems
 Holistic Pedagogy
 Human values in education
 Involvement in local culture
 Neuroscientific benefits
 Spiritual Growth
 Interdisciplinary Understandings
 Ethical Values
 Innovations
 IKS influence on pedagogy
 There are four essential components involved in the Ancient Indian knowledge
system, namely; Metaphysics (tattva vicāra), Epistemology (pramāṇa vicāra),
Ethics (purusārtha vicāra), and Logic (tarka vicāra). When it comes to the
explanation of the empirical world all these components are interrelated.
 All discussions on knowledge revolve around Darshana, Jnana, and Vidya. It is
said that “Darshana (philosophy) is the "system," the point of view, which
yields/leads to jnana, knowledge. When knowledge gathered about a particular
domain is organized and systematized for purposes of, say, reflection and
pedagogy, it is called vidya, "discipline."
 The method of questioning is a part of Darshnika Parampara. This is clearly
brought out by Kena Upanishads Method of Questioning. Dialogue, debate, and
discussion are part of the Ancient IKS. The corpus of knowledge on conducting a
successful debate was referred to as vādavidyā and several manuals dealing with
this discipline had been produced.' It was from these debates that the Indian
tradition of logic and allied investigations evolved and developed. For example,
Brhadaranyaka Upanishad has references to King Janaka as not only organizing
and patronizing debates between the sages and priests but also as participating
in such debates.
 Multidisciplinary education is a part of the Ancient Indian Knowledge System in
Indian Knowledge-centred tradition mentions 18 major vidyas or theoretical
disciplines; and 64 kalas, applied or vocational disciplines, and crafts.
 IKS
The 18 vidyas are as follows:
• The four Vedas
•The four subsidiary Vedas (Ayurveda-Medicine,
Dhanurveda-
weaponry, Gandharvaveda-Music, and Shilpa-
Architecture).
•Purana, Nyaya Mimamsha, Dharmashastra, and
Vedangas,
 Sixauxiliary sciences, phonetics, grammar, metre,
astronomy, ritual, and philology
IKS in teacher education
 UGC recommends training in Indian Knowledge system and
proposed that the teachers will have to learn about educational
references in the Vedas.
 Firstly, content should be restructured to incorporate indigenous
knowledge, history, and diverse cultural perspectives, ensuring
that teachers are equipped to contextualize education for
students from various backgrounds. Training modules must
emphasize experiential learning, drawing from traditional
teaching methods such as the Gurukul system.
 Furthermore, a technology-integrated approach should be
adopted, promoting the use of digital platforms to disseminate
information while respecting local languages and dialects
Challenges of IKS incorporation
 Lack of clear cut curriculum
 Training of teachers needs to be comprehensive
 IKS Literature needs to be made free and accessible for
students and teachers
 More translated works need to be made available
 Oral legacies – knowledge lost due to no documentation
 Revision of textbooks to include logical incorporations at
relevant places
 Funding for IKS research in teaching
Examples of Innovative IKS
integrated teaching
Teacher training in IKS
 University Grants Commission (UGC) guidelines mentions that 5 per cent of a
student's total credits should be in IKS courses.
 UGC aims to train 1.5 million teachers in IKS by 2025. For the purpose UGC has
already launched a MOOC (Massive Open Online Course). The online course on
Indian Knowledge System is divided into three parts; engineering, science –
technology and humanities & social sciences. Interested students can enrol in
the course by visiting the official portal of SWAYAM (swayam.gov.in).
 Teacher training and orientation in the Higher Education Institutions are being
conducted by various agencies. One of the important initiatives includes Pandit
Madan Mohan Malviya National Mission on Teachers Training (PMMMNMTT)
named as Malviya Mission. Teachers are required to attend a mandatory
induction program and periodic refresher courses for their continuous
professional advancement.
 UGC has published a training framework providing a structured approach for
teachers to gain a comprehensive understanding of IKS and its pedagogical
applications. A 30-hour induction program dedicates a minimum of 10% to IKS
content, encompassing foundational principles and case studies, demonstrating
IKS across disciplines and pedagogical approaches for effective teaching
methods
 Furthermore, the inclusion of IKS content in entrance exams like UGC NET and
CSIR NET is under consideration
Teaching mathematics
 Decimals : At first, from the Vedic times the basis of numeration in India
has consistently been ten. Long lists of names for several decimal places
are found in the sacred literatures of the Hindus, Jains, and Buddhists. The
Vajasaneyi, Taittiriya, Maitrdyani, and Kathaka Samhitas give
denominations up to 13 places, e.g. eka (1), daja (10), sata (100), sahasra
(1000),.. .samudra, madhya, anta, and pardrdha.
 Buddhist literature continued the same tradition and introduced a
centesimal scale (Jatottara-ganana), obtaining the name talaksana for the
54th place.
 The Jains in the Anuyogadvara-sutra (c. 100 B.C.) called the decimal
places ganana-sthana, gave a numerical vocabulary analogous to that of
the Brahmanic literature, and mentioned fantastically large numbers up
to 29 places and beyond.
 Aryabhata I (A.D 476) invented a system of expressing numbers with the help of
consonants and vowels, based again on the decimal place value principle,
explained in the paribhasa stanza of his Daiagitika-sutra.
 At about the same time a similar but somewhat improved system of
alphabetical notations called katapayadi was developed and used in
mathematical-astronomical texts. The system, employing place-value, was
known to Aryabhata I; it was used by Bhaskara I (A.D 574) and Aryabhata II
( A.D.950), and applied in the astronomical Jaimini-sutras of unknown date.
 Fourthly. there are several references to zero in literary works before its
appearance in inscriptions and texts in association with numerals. In Pingala‘s
(c. 200 B.C.) Chandah-sutra zero is mentioned in the rules for calculating the
number of long and short syllables in a metre of n syllables.
 The Bakhshali Manuscript (A.D 200) uses zero in calculation and represents it by
a dot as does the Kashmir recession of the Atharva-Veda. The Sanskrit name for
this zero-dot is Sunya-bindu as is clearly stated in Subandhu‘s Vasavadatta (A.D
600). In the Srivijaya inscriptions of Palembang in Sumatra, a dot is used in
writing the zero of the number 605. The early Arab writers on the Hindu numeral
system, such as Ibn Wahshiya (A.D. 855) and Al-Nadim (A.D 987), used dots to
represent zero. The Hindu term for zero-Sunya, meaning ‗void‘- passed over
into Arabic as as-sifr or sifr.
 The Arabic word for numbers is Hindsah, which means from India. This way of
writing numbers, including the way to write a ‘zero’, was very exciting to
mathematicians. Arab scientists in Iraq, especially Muhammd ibn Musa al-
Khawrizmi (d.840) used the new numbers to develop algebra around 830. The
English word algorithm is derived from his name.
 The term "algorithm" is derived from the algorism, the technique of
performing arithmetic with Hindu-Arabic numerals developed by al-
Khwārizmī.
 The method of extraction of the cube root of any integral number has
been traced to the Ganitapada of the Aryabhatiya. The same method is
given by Brahmagupta in his Brahmasphuta-siddhdnta.
 In the early Jaina canonical literature, permutation was termed vikalpa-
ganita and combination, bhanga. Later on the term chandaiciti was
adopted to signify permutations and combinations
 Problems receiving geometrical treatment were discussed under such
topics as ksetra (plane figures), khata (excavations or cubic figures), citi
(piles of bricks), krakaca (saw problems or cubic figures), and chaya
(shadows dealing with problems of similarities and proportions).
 The Jaina Bhagavati-sutra calculates the number of combinations of n
fundamental categories taken one at a time, two at a time, and so on.
Varahamihira has stated that ‗an immense number of perfumes can be
made from sixteen substances taken in one, two, three, or four
proportions‘, and has correctly given the number of perfumes resulting
from sixteen ingredients mixed in all proportions. Varahamihira in his
astrological work, the Brhatjataka, applied the same principle in
connection with planetary conjunctions
 Teaching Chemistry
 Of the six major schools of thoughts, Vaisesika, which extensively deals with matter
and its composition, is much like modern chemistry
 700-200 BC - Vaiseshika - anu • 420 BC - atom - indivisible • Early 19th century -
Dalton’s atomic theory
 Maharashi Kanada has been attributed to be the first to use the term Anu (atom),
meaning smallest particle or Kana, which became associated with his name.
 Atom is also referred to as darra in the Quran. This specific passage from the Quran
10:61
 And, [O Muhammad], you are not [engaged] in any matter or recite any of the
Qur'an and you [people] do not do any deed except that We are witness over you
when you are involved in it. And not absent from your Lord is any [part] of an
atom's weight within the earth or within the heaven or [anything] smaller than that
or greater but that it is in a clear register.
Qur'an 4:40, Allah does not do injustice, [even] as much as an atom's weight;
 Muwatta Malik, A'isha said, 'Are you amazed? How many atoms' weights do you see
in this grape?' " (referring to Sura 99 ayat 7).
 Jaina atomist theory treats matter, space and time as composed of indivisible smallest parts (Pines 1987).
They conceptualized a homogenous matter out of which every material body is composed, in contrast to
the atomism of the Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika and Buddhist systems, which posited atoms of different kinds for
each of the elements earth, water, fire and air (Gangopadhyaya 1980). Atoms thus bring different
properties to aggregates
 Recently, it was found that the iron pillar near Qutub Minar in Delhi, India, is
rust free because of a protective layer of `misawite' — a compound made up
of 5 iron, oxygen and hydrogen on the steel pillar, containing phosphorus,
which is claimed as the reason for the non-corrosive existence (Prakash,
2002). The research by Prof. R. Balasubramaniam of IIT, Kanpur and his team
of metallurgists has shown that the presence of Phosphorus in this ancient
iron — about one per cent — is due to the smelting process of iron ore using
charcoal, discovered then, in India.
 The pillar is dated back to the Gupta Dynasty between 320 A D and 540 A D.
In comparison, modern day smelting process yields steel with only 0.05 per
cent of phosphorus in it (Prakash, 2002).
 The iron required for forge welding was received in the form of lumps that
were obtained by the solid-state reduction of iron ore in the presence of
charcoal. The iron lumps were later forged together, and the large mass of the
pillar was fabricated. The various aspects of the forge-welding (i.e., vertical or
horizontal) technology employed to construct the top portion of the Delhi iron
pillar have recently been critically analyzed
 There are a few more such pillars in India, for instance at Dhar (Madhya
Pradesh) and Kodachadri Hill (coastal Karnataka). Besides, the same
technology was used to manufacture huge iron beams used in some temples
of Odisha, such as Jagannath of Puri (12th century). The iron beams at
Konarak‘s famous sun temple are of even larger dimensions. Chemical
analysis of one of the beams confirmed that it was wrought iron of a
phosphoric nature (99.64% Fe, 0.15% P, traces of C, traces of S and no
Ancient Indian Chemists and written
works
 Acharya Nagarjuna, a learned Buddhist of Nalanda University, was a
pioneer of Chemistry. He suggested that people should use allopathic
medicines also along with herbal medicines. It is believed that it was
Achaiya Nagarjuna who first introduced the use of mercury ash as a
medicine. He wrote books namely, ‘Rasa-ratnakar and ‘Arogya-manjari’.
 In his book Rasa- ratnakar, he mentioned about the main juice i.e.
‘maha rasa’, ‘uprasa’ and 10 types of poisons, various types of salts
and ash to minerals that are found in chemistry.
 The description of the method of preparation of golden metal and brass
by Nagarjuna by mixing copper and zinc is given in the following verse
–
 क्रमेण कृत्वाम्बुधरेण रंजित:। करोतत शुल्वं त्रिपुटेन काञ्चनम॥
(रसरत्नाकार-३)
 When zinc is mixed with sulva (copper) three times and heated, brass
metal is formed, which is a golden alloy.
 Nagarjuna's Rasa Ratnakar describes the metallurgy of getting pure
silver by melting native silver (impure silver) with lead and ashes in an
iron cauldron. In Ras Ratnakar, there is a description of the method of
distillation to obtain mercury from cinnabar
 Rasa Ratna Samuchchaya is a Sanskrit text of chemistry written by
Vaghbhatta in the 13th to 16th centuries

All kinds of processes like sublimation, distillation, condensation,

liquefaction, etc., could be done easily with the use of these
instruments
 Govindacharya has described the order of resistance to rusting of
metals and the ability of metals to rust. The same system is followed
in present days—the sequence of metals unaffected by rusting or
corrosion is gold, silver, copper, brass, lead, and iron. Gold is the
metal which rusts the least.

The works of Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber), considered the father of early
chemistry, were well-known among Muslim scholars in India. His
methods of distillation, sublimation, and crystallization were
practiced.Advancements in Metallurgy:Muslim metallurgists in India
refined techniques for extracting and purifying metals such as zinc
and copper.The production of high-quality steel, such as Damascus
steel and Wootz steel, flourished under Muslim patronage.
 Teaching Economics
 Kautilya’s Arthashastra is the chief source of information and a monumental work on statecraft
in ancient India. Kautilya’s name was Vishnu Gupta. He is known by the name of Kautilya
because he was an expert in diplomacy and political strategy. His famous book ‘Arthashastra’ is
essentially a book on state management and guide to the means of acquisition and prevention
of the wealth. The book ‘Arthashastra’ is based on earlier treaties and is divided into 15
adhikaranas or books. The book have a total of 150 chapters, 180 topics and a total of 6000
shlokas.
 Kautilya was familiar with the concept of demand and supply and their combined influence on
price. A king, in his opinion, should not arbitrarily fix the price of a product without regard to its
supply and demand situations. Without proper consideration of demand and supply, we can
think of a price that may not be claimed to be a just price which may maximize the welfare of
both consumers and producers.
 Taxation was one of the most important sources of revenue of the state. It was known as
‘rajkar’. Kautilya attached great significance to public finance in the national economy. Land
revenue was an important source of revenue in ancient India
 . He was of the view that wages must be adequate three fold wage; system- wages on contract
basis, periodical payment and advance payment. Fair wages system was devised.
 Kautilya emphasized on the production by masses of mass consumption goods to ensure
adequate income and employment. He pointed out that agriculture, cattle rearing small
industries, trade and services are the main avenues for employment. Kautilya emphasized on
public works policy to build forts, roads, water, routes, irrigation and canal works, stores,
warehouses, armories etc. Kautilya advocated that development of these sectors would solve
the problem of unemployment of the country
 While the measurement of national income through the concept of
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in a recent phenomenon, Shukranitisara
text gives degree of economic activity at various levels of government
through tax revenue slabs and the hierarchy of the overloads. The
annual revenue generation by an officer called Samanta, whose
jurisdiction covered 100 villages was expected to be between one lakh
to three lakh karshas. At the other end, a Sarvabhauma, who was the
sovereign of all lands was expected to collect revenue of more than 50
crore karshas. (1 karsha = 5/16th of a nineteenth century rupee)
 In Rig-Veda one finds description of an incident involving bargaining
over price. Here is the quote from Mandala (Book) 4, Hymn 24 – “A
customer is trying to buy wine (soma) from a priest as sacrificial
offering. Customer bids low price and the offerings remain unsold for a
mere price of ten cows. The needy buyer and shrewd seller both milk
out the udder (i.e., bargain hard for the price).”
 In Adhikarana (Book) 2 of the treatise of Kautilya there are references
to traders restricting supply by colluding and charging monopoly price.
He hand mandated heavy penalty for such trade-restricting behaviour.
On the other hand, if there was glut in the market, the director of trade
was expected to hold back sales to prevent price decline.
 In the credit market, there was an understanding of interest rate being a price
for using services of someone’s excess funds. Circa 700 BCE, Panini the Sanskrit
grammarian had defined daily and monthly compounding of interest rates in
decimal terms, when the Greeks and the Romans abhorred charging interest.
Cato the Elder considered charging interest on borrowed money, as bad as
murder! Aristotle too considered money as barren, i.e. capital cannot beget
capital. In stark contrast, in Mahabharata, Arjuna gives a very apt advice to
Yudhishthira that capital begets capital just as a wild elephant is captured using
the herd of domesticated elephants! Here is the original Sanskrit text of the
above statement from Book 12, Section 8, Verse 20 of the Mahabharata
(Ganguli, 1896):

 Treatises such as Purva Mimamsa written around 400 BCE clearly state that by
virtue of being a sovereign a king does not own all the lands of the state. The
kingly power was only for governing the state and its activities. In the western
tradition, the omnipotent God owns everything in the world, and because the
king was God’s representative on the earth, he would own all the land in the
state. This concept is knowns as Eminent Domain. The British land acquisition
act based on Eminent Domain principle had continued in India till 2013. This had
allowed Indian state to confiscate land from citizens without fair compensation
to farmers.
 The Mughals implemented sophisticated systems of taxation and
revenue collection. Akbar's Todar Mal Bandobast (land revenue
system) was influenced by Persian administrative practices.The
concept of zakat (charity tax) and other Islamic economic principles
shaped regional economic policies
 Introduction of standard coinage systems under Muslim rulers, such
as the gold mohur and silver rupee, ensured economic stability and
facilitated trade. They improved minting technologies with higher
purity of coinage
 The Mughal economy encouraged the cultivation of cash crops like
cotton, indigo, sugarcane, and opium, which had high demand in
domestic and international markets.This diversification improved
farmers' income and stimulated trade.
 Ain-i-Akbari, the administrative manual compiled by Abul Fazl,
detailed the fixed prices of goods and wages to prevent exploitation.
 The use of hundi (a financial instrument similar to modern bills of
exchange) allowed merchants to transfer money across vast
distances without the physical movement of cash.This facilitated
long-distance trade and reduced risks for traders.
 Lands were granted as inam (tax-free land) to scholars and religious
institutions and as jagir (land revenue assignments) to officials and
Teaching Physics
 Around 200 BCE, Maharshi Kanada systematically deduced a theory
related to atomism. He proposed that Gurutva (Hindi/Sanskrit for
gravity) was responsible for the earth, rising of fire and heat upwards,
the growth of grass, the natural rainfall, and thunderstorm. He then
attempted to apply his observations with his theories on atoms,
molecules, and their interaction.
 It was further developed during the first millennium CE by Dignāga
and Dharmakirti. Another Indian philosopher Pakudha Kaccayana also
put forward concepts about the atomic nature of the physical world.
Bhaskaracharya was one of the most prominent astronomers and
mathematicians of the 12th century. He is also considered as the greatest
mathematician from the medieval era. He is known amongst the theorist
for discovering principles on astronomy and calculus. He wrote “Siddhānta
Śiromaṇī” at the age of 36 in 1150 AD. He also contributed to “Surya
Siddhanta” that was originally written by Aryabhatta. The first principle of
gravity was stated by Bhaskaracharya and not Newton. Bhaskaracharya
stated the laws of gravity in the book Surya Siddhanta in 11th century.

Every object falls on the ground due to earth‟s force of attraction. This force
allows the sun, earth, moon and constellations to stay in the orbit.
Bhaskaracharya wrote a treatise „Lilavati’, he explained that earth has
gravitational force (gurutvakarshan shakti). There is a mutual attraction between
the planets and this allows them to hold themselves firmly in space. He also
mentioned the shape of the earth that “what we see is not the reality, Earth may
appear flat but it is spherical in reality‟.
 Muslim engineers used advanced pulley systems to lift heavy materials for
constructing monumental architecture, such as the Qutub Minar, Fatehpur Sikri,
and the Taj Mahal. These pulleys were part of complex scaffolding systems that
allowed workers to transport large stone blocks and other materials to
significant heights with precision.
 Muslim engineers designed and improved large siege engines, such as
trebuchets and catapults, which used counterweights and pulley systems to
launch projectiles. These were crucial in military campaigns during the Delhi
Sultanate and Mughal periods for attacking fortified structures.
 The works of engineers like Al-Jazari, whose Book of Knowledge of Ingenious
Mechanical Devices was known in India, inspired local adaptations and
improvements.
 Mechanisms involving gears and pulleys were also used in fort gates and
drawbridges, allowing for the controlled access to fortified cities and military
installations. Examples include the gates of Red Fort and Golconda Fort.
 In regions like the Indus Valley, Muslim engineers introduced water-powered
mills that utilized the energy from rivers.
 Gears were used in water clocks to measure time accurately. These clocks were
built in mosques and public spaces for prayer timings and administrative
purposes.Example: The Jantar Mantar observatories, while primarily associated
with astronomy, likely employed gear mechanisms for timekeeping and celestial
tracking.
 • The Persian wheel was a pivotal irrigation device introduced by Muslim
engineers in India. It consisted of a large wheel turned by oxen, camels, or
other animals, lifting water from wells or rivers.
• This technology allowed water to be transported efficiently for agriculture,
particularly in arid and semi-arid regions such as parts of Punjab, Gujarat,
and the Deccan Plateau.
• Innovation: Engineers improved the design by incorporating clay or
wooden buckets attached to the wheel, maximizing water-lifting efficiency.
• Noria:
• A type of water wheel that used the flow of a river to lift water into
aqueducts for irrigation.
• Unlike the Persian wheel, the noria was driven by the kinetic energy of
flowing water, requiring no animal power.
• These were mainly used in river-fed regions to supply water to agricultural
fields and urban centers.
 : While Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) was a key figure in optics, his work
influenced Muslim scholars in India. His theories on the nature of light
and vision were studied and applied in the region.Advancements in
Lenses and Mirrors: Scholars experimented with glass, lenses, and
reflective surfaces, which had practical applications in astronomy and
navigation.