6.

Evolution
Evolution:- is the sequence of gradual changes from
simple life to complex life forms
i.e. from primitive organisms that lived over
millions of years ago to new organisms that exist
today.

Evolutionary biology:- Study of history of life forms

on Earth.

Two important aspects of life are :-

Origin of life
Study of origin of life in the back ground of
• Origin of universe
• Origin of life

Origin of universe:-
About 15- 20 billion years old
Comprises of huge clusters of galaxies which
contains
Stars ,clouds of gases and dust.
• Big bang theory attempts to explain origin of
universe.
• Arose as a result of single huge explosion.
• Resulted in - expansion of universe
- lowering of temperature
- Formation of gases like hydrogen
and helium.
- condensation of these gases under
gravitation to form galaxies.
• Origin of Earth:-

• Formed around 4.5 billion years back.

• In solar system of milky way galaxy.
• Earlier there was no atmosphere on Earth.
• Surface covered with –water vapour
- methane
- carbon dioxide
-ammonia
released from molten mass.
Later-
• Water u.v rays of Sun hydrogen + oxygen

• Lighter Hydrogen gas escaped

• Oxygen combined with ammonia ,and
methane to form carbon dioxide ,water and
other compounds.
• Ozone layer is formed.
• As Earth cooled down water vap[our fell down
as rain .
• Filled the depressions to form oceans and
other water bodies.
Theories of origin of life :-

• Life appeared around 500 million years the

formation of Earth.
• Around 4 billion years back.

• Theory of special creation:-

• Life is created by super natural power.
• Lack scientific evidence so nit accepted.
• Theory of panspermia:-
• Proposed by early Greek thinkers.

• States that life on Earth is due to spores or

panspermia which came from outer space and
developed into living forms.

• Theory of spontaneous generation:-

• Also know as theory of abiogenesis or
autobiogenesis
• States that ‘life originated from non living
matter automatically.’

• Supported by Van Helmont

• Mice were formed from a dirty sweat soaked

shirt when put in dirty barn for 21 days.
Louis Pasture rejected it.

Demonstrated that life comes from pre existing life.

• He took two pre-strerlised flasks containing
nutrient broth killed Yeast.

• One flask was left open and the other was sealed.

• After sometime, the flask which was left open

showed new live organisms while in air tight flask
no new life originated.

• Appearance of life even after sterilisation

concluded that life in the flask arose form pre-
existing life, thus it discarded the theory of
• Theory of chemical evolution:-

• By Oparine and Haldane

• States “ first life form of life could have come

from pre existing non living organic molecules
i.e RNA,proteins.

• Chemical evolution is followed by formation of

life.
• Condition on Earth are favorable for it are :-
- High temperature
- volcanic storms
- reducing atmosphere containing CH4, NH3

• Experimental evidence for chemical

evolution:-
• By S.L. Miller and Harold Urey (1953)
• Created condition similar on Earth in
laboratory
• Created electric discharge in a closed flask
containing – CH4
H2
NH3
water vapour at 8000c.

• Observed the formation of amino acids.

• Similar experiment by others show the

formation of sugar, nitrogenous base, pigment,
fats.
• Analysis of meteorite content shows similar
components.

• Indicate similar process occurring in space.

• With limited evidences this theory is more or

less accepted.
• Formation of first cell:-

• First non cellular life form originated 3 billion

years ago.

• In form of molecules RNA, protein, and

polysaccharides inside non replicating
metabolic capsule.

• These capsules later reproduced.

• First cellular form of life originated about 200mya.

• They might be single cell formed in aquatic

environment.

• This is theory of abiogensis

• Formation of first form of life slowly through the

evolutionary forces acting on non living
molecules.

• Accepted by great majority.

• Evidences of evolution:-
- Paleontology

-comparative anatomy and morphology

-biochemical evidences

Biogeographically evidences

Embryological evidences
• Rocks form from sediments.

• Cross section of Earth shows arrangements of

sediments one above the other.

• Different aged rocks contain fossils of different

life forms.

• Who died during the formation of particular

sediment.
• Paleontological evidences:-

• Paleontological –study of fossils.

• Fossils:- remains of hard parts of life forms

found in rocks.
• Some appear similar to modern organisms.

• Some represent extinct organisms e.g

dinosaurs.

• Study of fossils in different sediment layers

indicates the-
• geological period in which they existed.

• Life forms are restricted to certain geological

time span means new life forms evolved at
different time of history of Earth.
Archaeopterex- connecting link beteen bird and
reptiles.
• Comparative anatomy and morphology:-

• Show similarities and differences among

organisms of today and those existed years ago.

• Homology:-

• Relation among organs of different organisms,

that show similarity in basic structure and
embryonic development but have different
functions.
• These organs are called homologous organs.

• It indicate- common ancestry.

-Divergent evolution.

• Divergent evolution:- same structure develop

differently for different needs
• Forelimbs of animals like man, cheetah, whale
and bat
• Thorns of Boaugainvillea and tendrils of
cucurbita.
• Vertebrates hearth and brain
• Analogy:-
• anatomically different organs performing
similar functions.

• These are analogous organs.

• Convergent evolution:- different structure

evolve for the same function.
Wings of butterfly and birds
 Flippers of dolphin and penguin
Sweet potato (root modification)
potato (stem modification)
• Biochemical evidences:-

• Similarities in proteins and genes performing a

given function in diverse group of organisms.

• Indicates common ancestry.

• e.g -genetic code is universal

-DNA composition basically same in all
organisms.
• Evidences from embryology:-

• Proposed by Ernst Heckel

• Based on observation of certain features

during embryonic development are common
to all vertebrates but absent in adults.

• e.g Embryo of all vertebrates including

humans have row of vestigial gills slits behind
head
• Present and functional organ in fish but not
found in other vertebrates.

• Disapproved by Karl Earnest Von Baer.

• Noted that embryos never pass through adult

stages of other animals.
• Biogeographical evidences:-

• Biogeography:- study of distribution of species

and ecosystem in a geographic area.

• Suggest that –
• i) species restricted to a region develop unique
features.

• ii) species present in widely separated area

show similarity in ancestry
• Adaptive radiation:-

• Process of evolution of different species

starting from a point in geographical area and
finally radiating in other areas of geography.

• Also known as divergent evolution.

• e. g. Darwin's finches.
Marsupials of Australia
• Darwin observed amazing Varity of creatures on
Galapagos island.

• Observe many varieties of finches (small black

bird) .

• All varieties evolved on same island

• from original seed eating finch.

• Other varieties have adopted to different parts of
island by altering beak enabling them to survive.

insect eaters
fruit eaters
wood pecker

• Australian marsupials:-

• Number of marsupials (pouched animals ) each

different from one other evolved from common
ancestor with in Australian continent.
Australian marsupials:-
• Adaptive convergence:-

• Development of similar functional structure in

unrelated group of organisms .

• Also known as convergent evolution.

• e.g. Placental mammals and Australian marsupials.

• Wolf and Tasmanian wolf –dog like carnivore.

• Mole and marsupial mole-- burrowing

• Evolution by natural selection:-

• Industrial melanism:-

• Is an adaption where moths living in the

industrial areas develop melanin pigment to
match their body to tree trunk.

• Is closely associated with industrial evolution

in Great Britain.
• Before industrialization:-

• The barks of the tree are covered with whitish

lichens.

• White moths escaped unnoticed by predatory

birds.

• More white winged moths than dark winged

moths.
• After industrialization ( 1920):-

• Tree barks are covered withby smoke and soots.

• White winged moths were easily noticed by

predatory birds.

• But black winged escaped unnoticed and

survived.

• more black winged moths than white winged

moths.
• This is supported by fact that-
in areas where industralisation did not
occur i.e. rural area the white winged moths
are more.

• This showed that in mixed population those

that can better adopt survive, increase their
population.

• But no variant is wiped out.

• Resistance of insects to pesticides:-

• Excessive use of herbicides and pesticides

resulted in selection of resistant varieties of
insects in very small time.
• e.g DDT resistance in insects

• Excessive use of antibiotics resulted in more

resistant strains of pathogenic micriorganisms.
• These are examples of evolution by
anthropogenic actions ( activities that are
produced or caused by human acts. )

• Evolution is not a directed process but a

stochastic process (analysed statically but not
be predicated precisely)

• Based on –chance events in nature,

chance mutation in a organism.
• Theories of evolution:-

• Lamarck's theory of evolution:-

• French naturalist.

• Proposed that evolution of life forms occurred

by use and disuse of organs.

• E.g. Girraffes
• Giraffes initially have short neck.

• In order to reach leaves on tall trees they

adopted by elongation of neck.

• By passing this acquired character to

succeeding generation they acquire long neck.

• Not accepted as there is no vital force in

organisms that increases or reduces their
body parts.
• Darwin's theory of evolution:-

• Evolution by natural selection

• The rate of appearances of new forms is linked to

their life cycle or life span.

• e.g colony of bacteria growing on a medium has

built in variation in terms of use of substrate.

• Change in medium would result in growth of

variant bacteria.
• In course of time this variant population out
grows the original one and become new
species.

• This would happen in one day.

• But same thing to happen in higher animals

require millions of years.

• Nature selects fittest.

• So there is genetic basis for selecting and
getting evolved.

• Some organisms are better adopted to survive

in a hostile condition.

• Adaptive ability is inherited.

• fittest organism will survive and get selected

by nature.
• Two key concept of Darwin's theory :-

• Branching descent ( process by which new

species originate from single descent) and
• Natural selection .

• There is possibility that work of Thomas

Malthus on population influenced Darwin.

• Due to limited natural resources population

size remains stable except seasonal fluctions.
• Members of population vary in characteristics
and these variations are inheritable.

• Population size remains stable due to

competition for limited resources.

• Those better adopted survive and reproduce.

• Over period of time survivors leave more

progeny and change the population
characteristics and new form arise.
• Rate of appearance of new form is linked with
life cycle.

• In microbes it can happen in few days while

for higher animals require millions of years as
life span is in years.

• Fitness means ability to adopt and get

selected by nature.
• Alferd Wallace a naturalist worked in Malay
Archipelago came to similar conclusion.

• So they jointly proposed the natural theory of

selection in 1858.
• Mechanism of evolution ( mutational theory
of evolution.

• Hugo de varies proposed it.

• He has worked on evening prime rose

• States that evolution occurs by sudden large

difference in the population.
• He believed mutation is only cause of
evolution not the minor inheritable changes
as proposed by Darwin.

• According to him mutation cause specication

and called it saltation ( single step large
mutation)
• Modern synthetic theory:-

• Darwin's theory is critisied for the ground that

it could not explain how variations arise.

• With progress in genetics source of variations

are explained and Darwin's theory is modified.

• So most accepted theory is modern synthetic

theory .
• According to it the origin of species is based
on interaction of genetic variations, mutation
heredity, natural selection.

• Population genetics:- study of genetic

variation with in and among populations.
• Hardy Weinberg principle:-

• Describes a theoretical situation in which

population is undergoing no evolutionary
changes.

• It defines genetic structure of non evolving

population.

• It states “allele frequencies in a population are

same and remain constant from generation to
generation.
• The gene pool (total genes and their alleles in
a population) remain constant.

• This is called genetic equilibrium or Hardy

Weinberg equilibrium.

• According to it sum total of all allelic

frequencies is equal to 1.
• In a diploid individual

Frequency of allele A =p
Frequency of allele a = q
Frequency of AA individuals = p*p=p2
Frequency of aa individuals = q*q=q2
Frequency of Aa individuals = 2*p*q=2pq.
Sum total of all frequency= P2+2pq+q2= 1
It is binomial expansion of (p+q)2
• Constant gene frequencies over several
generation indicate evolution is not taking
place.

• Changing gene frequencies indicate evolution is

in progress.

• So evolution occurs when genetic equilibrium is

upset or disturbed.

• Evolution is departure from Hardy Weinberg

equilibrium.
• Factors affecting Hardy Weinberg
equilibrium:-

• Gene migration.
• Genetic drift.
• Mutation.
• Genetic recombination.
• Natural selection.
• Gene migration or gene flow:-

• Movement of alleles from one population to

another.

• New genes are added to new population and

lost from old population

• Results in changing gene frequencies

• When gene migration occurs multiple times is
called gene flow.
• Genetic drift:-

• Is a random or drastic change in gene

frequency that occurs only by chance.

• It alters the frequency of population so that it

causes variation in population that leads to
formation of new species.

• Leads to 1) founders effect

2) bottle neck effect.
• Founders effect:-

• occurs when a small group of individuals

becomes isolated from a larger population.

• Drifted population becomes the founder .

• A bottleneck effect:-
• is a sharp reduction in the size of a population
due to environmental events such as famines,
earthquakes, floods, fires, disease, and
droughts; or human activities .
• Mutation:-

• Sudden appearance of variation.

• Leads to new phenotype.

• Though they are random and occur at slow

rate ,are sufficient to create genetic variation
that leads to speciation.
• Genetic recombination:-
• Alleles of parental linkage group separate and
new combination of alleles are formed due to
crossing over during meiosis.
• Genetic recombination adds new alleles and
combination of alleles to gene pool which
cause variation.

• Leads to evolution.
• Natural selection:-

• Occurs due to inheritance of variation.

• Leads to survival of those who best fit in

environment, reproduce and survive.

• Natural selection can have following three

effects
• 1) Stabilisation :- large number of individuals
acquire mean character.

• e.g human height

• 2) Directional change:- large number of

individuals acquire value other than mean
value.

• e.g. industrial melanism in moths.

• 3)Disruptive:-
• large number of individuals acquire peripheral
character value at both ends of the
distribution curve.
• Brief account of evolution:-

• 2000 mya first cellular life appeard.

• Some cells developed ability to release O2

using reaction similar to light reaction in
photosynthesis.

• Slowly single celled organisms became

multicelluar.
• Evolution in animals:-

• 500 mya invertebrates were formed and

active.

• 350mya jawless fish probably evolved.

• A fish with stout and strong fins, which can
move on land and go back to water may
present.

• In 1938 a fish is caught in South Africa known

as coelacanth which was consider to be
extinct.
• They are called lobefins which get evolved
into first amphibians.

• So they are the ancestors of modern day frogs

and salamanders.

• Amphibians evolved into reptiles. Next 200

millions years they dominated the Earth.

• Reptiles lay thick shelled eggs which do not

dry up in sun is one of the reason of their
dominance for long period.
• Their modern day descendents are turtles ,
tortoises, and crocodiles.

• Some of land reptiles went back in water and

evolve in fish like reptile Ichthyosaurs.
• Land reptiles are dinosaurs.

• Biggest of them was Tyrannosaurus rex.

• About 65 mya dinosaurs suddenly
disappeared.

• Reasons are not known but climatic changes

and some believe that they evolved in birds.

• Small reptiles of that era still exists today.

• First mammals were shrews.

• Mammals were viviparous and protected their

young inside mothers body.

• More intelligent in sensing and avoiding danger.

• In South America mammals resembling horse,
hippopotamus, rabbit, bear were present.

• Due to continental drift they get mixed with

North American fauna.

• Pouched animals of Australia survived as there

was no competition.

• Some mammals remained in water e.g.

Whales, dolphins, seals , sea cows.
• Evolution of plants:-

• The organisms that existed on land were

plants.

• Bryophytes are first plants to colonies land.

• During Jurassic era giant ferns were present.

• They fell to form coal deposites.

• Psilophyton is common ancestor

of horse tails, ferns and
angiosperms.

• First seed plant s appeared are

gymnosperms.
• Origin and evolution of man (Hominid
evolution):-
• Human ancestors:-

• Dryopithecus:- common
ancestors of apes and man.

• Time of origin:- 20- 25 mya.

• General characters:- ape like,

hairy, ate soft fruits and leaves
large brain, arms and legs of
same length.
• Ramapithecus:-

• Fossils found in
shivalic hills.
• Time of origin:- 14- 15 mya.

• More man like, walked more

erect, teeth like modern man.
• Australopithecus:- African ape man

• Time of origin:- 3-4 mya.

• Fossils found in Tanzania and

Ethiopia, man like primate,
not taller than 4 feet but ,
walked upright, ate fruits,
hunted with stones weapons,
brain capacity 400 -600 cc.
• Homo habilis:- handy man

• Time of origin:- 2 mya.

• Fossils found in East African

grasslands, first hominid
(human like),
brain capacity 650-800 cc,
do not eat meat.
• Homo erectus:- Java man

• Time of origin:- 1.5 mya.

• Fossils found in Java (1891),

large brain capacity 900cc,
probably ate meat.
• Neanderthal man:-
• Time of origin:- 1,00,000-40,000 years ago.

• Fossils found near east and

central Asia,
brain capacity 1400cc,used hides
to protect their bodies and
buried their dead.
• Homo sapien:- modern man.

• Time of origin:- 75,000-10,000 years ago(ice-

age).

• Arose on Africa and moved

across continents, cave art
developed about 18,000
years ago, agriculture
came around 10,000 years
back, human settlements
• Most successful story of evolution is evolution
of man.

• Two main reasons –language skills and

self consciousness.

***************************************