Lecture Presentation

Chapter 2

Atoms, Molecules,
and Ions

James F. Kirby
Quinnipiac University
Hamden, CT
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Atomic Theory of Matter

The theory that atoms

are the fundamental
building blocks of
matter reemerged in the
early nineteenth
century, championed by
John Dalton.

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 Dalton’s Postulates

1) Each element is
composed of
extremely small
particles called
atoms.

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 Dalton’s Postulates

2) All atoms of a given

element are identical
to one another in
mass and other
properties, but the
atoms of one element
are different from the
atoms of all other
elements.
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 Dalton’s Postulates

3) Atoms of an element
are not changed into
atoms of a different
element by chemical
reactions; atoms are
neither created nor
destroyed in chemical
reactions.

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 Dalton’s Postulates
4) Atoms of more than
one element combine
to form compounds;
a given compound
always has the same
relative number and
kind of atoms.

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 Law of Conservation of Mass

 The total mass of substances present at the

end of a chemical process is the same as the
mass of substances present before the
process took place.
 This law was one of the laws on which
Dalton’s atomic theory was based.

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 Law of Multiple Proportions
 If two elements, A and B, form more
than one compound, the masses of B
that combine with a given mass of A are
in the ratio of small whole numbers.
 Dalton predicted this law and observed
it while developing his atomic theory.
 When two or more compounds exist
from the same elements, they can
not have the same relative number Atoms,
of atoms. Molecules,
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 Discovery of Subatomic Particles
• In Dalton’s view, the atom was the
smallest particle possible. Many
discoveries led to the fact that the atom
itself was made up of smaller particles.
 Electrons and cathode rays
 Radioactivity
 Nucleus, protons, and neutrons

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 The Electron (Cathode Rays)

• Streams of negatively charged particles were found to

emanate from cathode tubes, causing fluorescence.
• J. J. Thomson is credited with their discovery (1897).
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 The Electron

Thomson measured the charge/mass ratio of

the electron to be 1.76  108 coulombs/gram
(C/g). Atoms,
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and Ions
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 Millikan Oil-Drop Experiment
(Electrons)
 Once the charge/mass
ratio of the electron was
known, determination of
either the charge or the
mass of an electron
would yield the other.
 Robert Millikan
determined the charge
on the electron in 1909.

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 Radioactivity

• Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of

high-energy radiation by an atom.
• It was first observed by Henri Becquerel.
• Marie and Pierre Curie also studied it.
• Its discovery showed that the atom had more
subatomic particles and energy associated
with it.

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 Radioactivity
• Three types of radiation were discovered by
Ernest Rutherford:
–  particles (positively charged)
–  particles (negatively charged, like electrons)
–  rays (uncharged)

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 Thomson’s Model of the Atom

• The prevailing theory

was that of the “plum
pudding” model, put
forward by Thomson.
• It featured a positive
sphere of matter with
negative electrons
embedded in it.
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 Discovery of the Nucleus

Ernest
Rutherford
shot 
particles at a
thin sheet of
gold foil and
observed the
pattern of
scatter of the
particles.
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 The Nuclear Atom

Since some particles

were deflected at
large angles,
Thomson’s model
could not be correct.

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 The Nuclear Atom
• Rutherford postulated a
small, dense nucleus with
most of the mass and all
of the positive charge
and negatively charged
electrons around the
nucleus.
• Most of the volume is
empty space.

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and Ions
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 EXERCISE
• Practice Exercise 2.1/2
The diameter of a carbon atom is 1.54 A° . (a)
Express this diameter in picometers. (b) How many
carbon atoms could be aligned side by side across
the width of a pencil line that is 0.20 mm wide?

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 Subatomic Particles

• Protons were discovered in 1919 by

Rutherford and Neutrons in 1932 by
Chadwick.
• Thus the atom is composed of electrons,
protons and neutrons.

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 Subatomic Particles
• Protons (+1) and electrons (–1) have a charge;
neutrons are neutral.
• Protons and neutrons have essentially the same
mass (relative mass 1). The mass of an electron
is so small we ignore it (relative mass 0).
• Protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus;
electrons travel around the nucleus.

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 Atomic Mass
• Atoms have extremely small masses.
• The heaviest known atoms have a
mass of approximately 4 × 10–22 g.
• A mass scale on the atomic level is
used, where an atomic mass unit
(amu) is the base unit.
 1 amu = 1.66054 × 10–24 g

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 Atomic Mass Measurement
• Atomic and molecular masses can be
measured with great accuracy using a mass
spectrometer.
• Masses of atoms are compared to the carbon
atom with 6 protons and 6 neutrons (C-12).

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 Symbols of Elements

 Elements are represented by a one or two letter symbol.

This is the symbol for carbon.
 All atoms of the same element have the same number of
protons, which is called the atomic number, Z. It is written
as a subscript BEFORE the symbol.
 The mass number is the total number of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. It is written as a
superscript BEFORE the symbol.
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 Isotopes
• Isotopes are atoms of the same element with
different masses.
• Isotopes have different numbers of neutrons,
but the same number of protons.

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 Atomic Mass
• Because in the real world we use large amounts
of atoms and molecules, we use average masses
in calculations.
• An average mass is found using all isotopes of an
element weighted by their relative abundances.
This is the element’s atomic mass.
• That is, Atomic Mass = Ʃ [(isotope mass) ×
(fractional natural abundance)]. Note: the
sum is for ALL isotopes of an element.

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and Ions
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 EXERCISE
• Pr. Ex. 2.4/2) Three isotopes of silicon occur in
nature: 28Si (92.23%), atomic mass 27.97693 amu;
29
Si (4.68%), atomic mass 28.97649 amu; and 30Si
(3.09%), atomic mass 29.97377 amu. Calculate the
atomic mass of silicon.

• Ex: Only two isotopes of copper occur naturally: 63Cu

(atomic mass = 62.9296 amu) and 65Cu (atomic mass
= 64.9278 amu). Calculate the relative abundances of
these two isotopes.

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and Ions
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 Periodic Table
• The periodic
table is a
systematic
organization of the
elements.
• Elements are
arranged in order
of atomic number.
• Unlike the way we write isotopes, the atomic
number is at the TOP of a box in the periodic table.
• The atomic mass of an element appears at the
BOTTOM of the box. (They are not shown on this
Atoms,
version of the Periodic Table.) Molecules,
and Ions
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 Periodic Table

• The rows on the

periodic table are
called periods.
• Columns are
called groups.
• Elements in the
same group have
similar chemical
properties.
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 Periodicity

When one looks at the chemical properties of

elements, one notices a repeating pattern of
reactivities.

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 Groups

These five groups are known by their names.

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 Periodic Table
• Metals are on
the left side of
the periodic
table.
• Some properties
of metals
include
 shiny luster.
 conducting heat
and electricity.
 solidity (except
mercury). Molecules,
Atoms,

and Ions
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 Periodic Table
• Nonmetals are
on the right side
of the periodic
table (with the
exception of H).
• They can be
solid (like
carbon), liquid
(like bromine), or
gas (like neon)
at room
temperature.
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and Ions
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 Periodic Table
• Elements on the
steplike line are
metalloids
(except Al, Po,
and At).
• Their properties
are sometimes
like metals and
sometimes like
nonmetals.
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and Ions
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 Chemical Formulas
• The subscript to the right of
the symbol of an element tells
the number of atoms of that
element in one molecule of
the compound.
• Molecular compounds are
composed of molecules and
almost always contain only
nonmetals.

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 Diatomic Molecules
• These seven elements occur naturally
as molecules containing two atoms:
– Hydrogen
– Nitrogen
– Oxygen
– Fluorine
– Chlorine
– Bromine
– Iodine

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 Types of Formulas

• Empirical formulas give the lowest whole-

number ratio of atoms of each element in a
compound.
• Molecular formulas give the exact number
of atoms of each element in a compound.
• If we know the molecular formula of a
compound, we can determine its empirical
formula. The converse is not true!
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 Types of Formulas
• Structural formulas show
the order in which atoms are
attached. They do NOT
depict the three-dimensional
shape of molecules.
• Perspective drawings also
show the three-dimensional
order of the atoms in a
compound. These are also
demonstrated using models.
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 Ions

• When an atom of a group of atoms loses or gains

electrons, it becomes an ion.
• Cations are formed when at least one electron is lost.
Monatomic cations are formed by metals.
• Anions are formed when at least one electron is gained.
Monatomic anions are formed by nonmetals. Atoms,
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and Ions
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 Common Cations

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 Common Anions

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 Ionic Compounds
 Ionic compounds (such as NaCl) are generally
formed between metals and nonmetals.
 Electrons are transferred from the metal to the
nonmetal. The oppositely charged ions attract
each other. Only empirical formulas are written.

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and Ions
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 Writing Formulas

• Because compounds are electrically neutral,

one can determine the formula of an ionic
compound this way:
– The charge on the cation becomes the subscript
on the anion.
– The charge on the anion becomes the subscript
on the cation.
– If these subscripts are not in the lowest whole-
number ratio, divide them by the greatest common
factor. Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
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 Naming the Ionic Compounds

• Write the name of the cation. If the cation

can have more than one possible charge,
write the charge as a Roman numeral in
parentheses.
• If the anion is an element, change its
ending to -ide; if the anion is a polyatomic
ion, simply write the name of the
polyatomic ion.

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and Ions
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 Patterns in Oxyanion Nomenclature

• When there are two oxyanions involving the

same element
– the one with fewer oxygens ends in -ite.
– the one with more oxygens ends in -ate.
• NO2− : nitrite; NO3− : nitrate
• SO32− : sulfite; SO42− : sulfate

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and Ions
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 Patterns in Oxyanion Nomenclature

• Central atoms on the second row have a

bond to, at most, three oxygens; those on the
third row take up to four.
• Charges increase as you go from right to left.
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 Acid Nomenclature
• If the anion in the acid ends
in -ide, change the ending
to -ic acid and add the
prefix hydro-.
HCl(aq) hydrochloric acid
HBr(aq) hydrobromic acid
HI(aq) hydroiodic acid
• If the anion ends in -ite, change the ending to -ous acid.
– HNO2: Nitrous acid
• If the anion ends in -ate, change the ending to -ic acid.
– HNO3: Nitric acid
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and Ions
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 Nomenclature of
Binary Molecular Compounds
• The name of the element
farther to the left in the
periodic table (closer to
the metals) or lower in the
same group is usually
written first.
• A prefix is used to denote
the number of atoms of
each element in the
compound (mono- is not
used on the first element
listed, however). Atoms,
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and Ions
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 Nomenclature of Binary Compounds
• The ending on the second element is changed
to -ide.
– CO2: carbon dioxide
– CCl4: carbon tetrachloride
• If the prefix ends with a or o and the name of
the element begins with a vowel, the two
successive vowels are often elided into one.
– N2O5: dinitrogen pentoxide

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and Ions
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 • HCl(g) hydrogen chloride
• HBr(g) hydrogen bromide
• HI(g) hydrogen iodide
• H2S(g) hydrogen sulfide
• H2S(aq) hydrosulfuric acid
• H2SO4 (aq) sulfuric acid

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and Ions
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 Nomenclature of Organic Compounds

• Organic chemistry is the study of carbon.

• Organic chemistry has its own system of nomenclature.
• The simplest hydrocarbons (compounds containing only
carbon and hydrogen) are alkanes.
• The first part of the names just listed correspond to the
number of carbons (meth- = 1, eth- = 2, prop- = 3, etc.).
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 Nomenclature of Organic Compounds

• When a hydrogen in an alkane is replaced with

something else (a functional group, like -OH in
the compounds above), the name is derived from
the name of the alkane.
• The ending denotes the type of compound.
– An alcohol ends in -ol. Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
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 EXERCISE
NAMING COMPOUNDS
• Which of the following compounds are ionic and which are
molecular?
(a) PF5 (b) NaI (c) SCl2 (d) Ca(NO3)2 (e) FeCl3
(f) CoCO3 (g) N2O4

• Give the name or if the name is given write the chemical

formula for each of the following ions:
- Co3+: - Hydrogen carbonate ion:
- Chromium (II) ion: - SO3- :

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 • Write the chemical formula for the following EXERCISE
compounds:
- Barium oxide - Aluminum sulfate
- Mercury (II) phosphate - Ammonium nitrite
- Iron(II) chromate - Hydrobromic acid
- Bromine pentafluride - Iodic acid
- Carbonic acid

• Name the following compounds.

- SF6
- I2Cl6 - H2S(aq)
- Cr2O3 - CH3CH2OH

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 END OF THE CHAPTER EXERCISES:

Chapter 2: 2, 6, 23, 34-36, 49, 58, 59, 61, 63-65, 67-

78, 81, 104, 105

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