Grammars

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 Grammars
Grammars express languages

Example: the English language

sentence  noun _ phrase predicate

noun _ phrase  article noun

predicate  verb
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article  a
article  the

noun  cat
noun  dog

verb  runs
verb  walks

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A derivation of “the dog walks”:

sentence  noun _ phrase predicate

 noun _ phrase verb
 article noun verb
 the noun verb
 the dog verb
 the dog walks

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A derivation of “a cat runs”:

sentence  noun _ phrase predicate

 noun _ phrase verb
 article noun verb
 a noun verb
 a cat verb
 a cat runs

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Language of the grammar:

L = { “a cat runs”,
“a cat walks”,
“the cat runs”,
“the cat walks”,
“a dog runs”,
“a dog walks”,
“the dog runs”,
“the dog walks” }
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 Notation

Production Rules

noun  cat
noun  dog

Variable Terminal

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 Another Example
Grammar: S  aSb
S

Derivation of sentenceab :

S  aSb  ab

S  aSb S
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Grammar: S  aSb
S

Derivation of sentence aabb :

S  aSb  aaSbb  aabb

S  aSb S
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Other derivations:

S  aSb  aaSbb  aaaSbbb  aaabbb

S  aSb  aaSbb  aaaSbbb

 aaaaSbbbb  aaaabbbb

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Language of the grammar

S  aSb
S

n n
L {a b : n 0}

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 More Notation

Grammar G V , T , S , P 
V : Set of variables

T : Set of terminal symbols

S : Start variable

P : Set of Production rules

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 Example

GrammarG : S  aSb
S

G V , T , S , P 

V {S } T {a, b}
P {S  aSb, S  }
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 More Notation
Sentential Form:
A sentence that contains
variables and terminals

Example:

S  aSb  aaSbb  aaaSbbb  aaabbb

Sentential Forms sentence

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 *
We write: S  aaabbb

Instead of:

S  aSb  aaSbb  aaaSbbb  aaabbb

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 *
In general we write: w1  wn

If: w1  w2  w3    wn

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 *
By default: w  w

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 Example
Grammar Derivations
S  aSb *
S 
S
*
S  ab
*
S  aabb
*
S  aaabbb
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 Example
Grammar Derivations
S  aSb 
S  aaSbb
S

aaSbb  aaaaaSbbbbb

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 Another Grammar Example
Grammar G : S  Ab
A  aAb
A 

Derivations:
S ⇒ Ab ⇒ b
S ⇒ Ab ⇒ aAbb ⇒ abb
S ⇒ Ab ⇒ aAbb ⇒ aaAbbb ⇒ aabbb
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 More Derivations
S  Ab  aAbb  aaAbbb  aaaAbbbb
 aaaaAbbbbb  aaaabbbbb


S  aaaabbbbb

S  aaaaaabbbbbbb

n n
S a b b
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 Language of a Grammar

For a grammarG
with start variable S :


L(G ) {w : S  w}

String of terminals
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 Example
For grammarG : S  Ab
A  aAb
A 

n n
L(G ) {a b b : n 0}


n n
Since: S a b b
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 A Convenient Notation

A  aAb
A  aAb | 
A 

article  a
article  a | the
article  the
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Linear Grammars

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 Linear Grammars
Grammars with
at most one variable at the right side
of a production

Examples: S  aSb S  Ab
S A  aAb
A 

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 A Non-Linear Grammar

Grammar G : S  SS
S
S  aSb
S  bSa

L(G ) {w : na ( w) nb ( w)}

Number of a in string w
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 Another Linear Grammar

Grammar G : S A
A  aB | 
B  Ab

n n
L(G ) {a b : n 0}

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 Right-Linear Grammars
All productions have form: A  xB
or
A x

Example: S  abS string of

S a terminals

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 Left-Linear Grammars
All productions have form: A  Bx
or
A x

Example: S  Aab string of

A  Aab | B terminals

B a
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Regular Grammars

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 Regular Grammars
A regular grammar is any
right-linear or left-linear grammar

Examples:
G1 G2
S  abS S  Aab
S a A  Aab | B
B a
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 Observation
Regular grammars generate regular
languages

G2
Examples:
G1 S  Aab
S  abS A  Aab | B
S a B a

L(G1 ) (ab) * a L(G2 ) aab(ab) *

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Regular Grammars
Generate
Regular Languages

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 Theorem

Languages
Generated by
Regular Grammars
 Regular
Languages

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 Theorem - Part 1

Languages
Generated by  Regular
Languages
Regular Grammars

Any regular grammar generates

a regular language

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 Theorem - Part 2

Languages
Generated by  Regular
Languages
Regular Grammars

Any regular language is generated

by a regular grammar

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 Proof – Part 1

Languages
Generated by  Regular
Languages
Regular Grammars

The language L(G ) generated by

any regular grammar G is regular

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 The case of Right-Linear Grammars

Let G be a right-linear grammar

We will prove: L(G ) is regular

Proof idea: We will construct NFAM

with L( M ) L(G )
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Grammar G is right-linear

Example: S  aA | B
A  aa B
B b B|a

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Construct NFA M such that
every state is a grammar variable:

A
S special
VF
final state
B
S  aA | B
A  aa B
B b B|a 41
Add edges for each production:

a A
S VF
B

S  aA

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 a A
S VF

B

S  aA | B

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 A
a a

S a VF

B
S  aA | B
A  aa B
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 A
a a

S a VF

B
S  aA | B
b
A  aa B
B  bB 45
 A
a a

S a VF
 a
B
S  aA | B
b
A  aa B
B  bB | a 46
 A
a a

S a VF
 a
B

S  aA  aaaB  aaabB  aaaba

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 NFA M Grammar
A G
a
S  aA | B
a
A  aa B
S a
B  bB | a
 VF
a
B
L( M ) L(G ) 
b
aaab * a  b * a
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 In General
A right-linear grammarG

has variables: V0 ,V1,V2 ,

and productions: Vi  a1a2  amV j

or

Vi  a1a2  am
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We construct the NFA M such that:

each variable Vi corresponds to a

node:
V1 V3
V0
VF
V2
V4 special
final state
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For each production:Vi  a1a2  amV j

we add transitions and intermediate

nodes

Vi a1 a2 ……
am V
j
…

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For each production:Vi  a1a2  am

we add transitions and intermediate

nodes

Vi a1 a2 ……
am
VF
…

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Resulting NFA M looks like this:
a9

a2 a4
a1 V1 V3
a3 a5
V0
a3 a4
VF
a8 a9
V2 a5
V4

It holds that: L(G ) L( M )

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 The case of Left-Linear Grammars

Let G be a left-linear grammar

We will prove: L(G ) is regular

Proof idea:
We will construct a right-linear
 R
grammarG with L(G ) L(G)
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Since G is left-linear grammar
the productions look like:

A  Ba1a2  ak

A  a1a2  ak

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Construct right-linear grammarG
Left A  Ba1a2  ak
G
linear
A → Bv

Right A  ak  a2 a1B
G
linear
R
A v B
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Construct right-linear grammarG
Left A  a1a2  ak
G
linear
A v

Right
G  A  ak  a2 a1
linear
R
A v
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 R
It is easy to see that: L(G ) L(G)

Since G is right-linear, we have:

R
L(G) L(G) L(G )
Regular Regular Regular
Language Language Language

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 Proof - Part 2

Languages
Generated by  Regular
Languages
Regular Grammars

Any regular language L is generated

by some regular grammar G

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Any regular language L is generated
by some regular grammar G

Proof idea:
Let M be the NFA with L L(M ) .

Construct from M a regular G

grammar L( M ) L(G )
such that 60
Since L is regular
there is an NFA M such that L L(M )
b
Example:
M a
a
q0 q1 q2
 b
L ab * ab(b * ab) * q3
L L(M )
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Convert M to a right-linear grammar
b

M a
a
q0 q1 q2

 b
q0  aq1
q3

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 b

M a
a
q0 q1 q2
q0  aq1 b

q1  bq1 q3
q1  aq2

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 b

M a
a
q0 q1 q2
q0  aq1
q1  bq1  b

q1  aq2 q3

q2  bq3

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 L(G ) L( M ) L
G b

q0  aq1 M a
a
q0 q1 q2
q1  bq1
q1  aq2  b

q2  bq3 q3

q3  q1
q3  
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 In General
a
For any transition: q p

Add production: q  ap

variable terminal variable

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For any final state: qf

Add production: qf  

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Since G is right-linear grammar

G is also a regular grammar

with L(G ) L( M ) L

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