Mathematical Basics

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 Mathematical Basics

• Sets
• Functions
• Relations
• Graphs
• Proof Techniques

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 SETS
A set is a collection of elements
A {1, 2, 3}
B {train, bus, bicycle, airplane}

We write
1 A
ship  B
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 Set Representations

C = { a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k }

C = { a, b, …, k } finite set

S = { 2, 4, 6, … } infinite set

S = { j : j > 0, and j = 2k for some

k>0 }

S = { j : j is nonnegative and even }

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 A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }
U
6 A
2 3 8
1
7 4 5
9
10

Universal Set: all possible elements

U = { 1 , … , 10 }
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 Set Operations
A = { 1, 2, 3 } B = { 2, 3, 4, 5}
A B
• Union
2 4
1
3
A U B = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 } 5

• Intersection
U
A B = { 2, 3 } 2
3
• Difference
A-B={1}
1
B - A = { 4, 5 }
Venn diagrams
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• Complement
Universal set = {1, …, 7}
A = { 1, 2, 3 } A = { 4, 5, 6, 7}

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A
A 3 6
1
2
5 7

A=A
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 { even integers } = { odd
integers }

Integers

1 odd
even 5
2 6
0
4
3 7

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DeMorgan’s Laws

U
AUB=A B

U
A B=AUB

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 Empty, Null Set:
={}

SU =S
U
S = = Universal Set

S- =S

-S=

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 Subset
A = { 1, 2, 3} B = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }
A B

U
Proper Subset: A B

U
B
A

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 Disjoint Sets
A = { 1, 2, 3 } B = { 5, 6}

U
A B=

A B

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 Set Cardinality
• For finite sets
A = { 2, 5, 7 }

|A| = 3

(set size)

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 Powersets
A powerset is a set of sets

S = { a, b, c }

Powerset of S = the set of all the subsets of S

={ , {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c

Observation: | 2S | = 2|S| ( 8 = 23 )

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 Cartesian Product
A = { 2, 4 } B = { 2, 3, 5 }

A X B = { (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 5), ( 4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 5) }

|A X B| = |A| |B|

Generalizes to more than two sets

AXBX…XZ
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 GRAPHS
A directed graph
e
b
node
a d
ed g e c
Nodes (Vertices)
V = { a, b, c, d, e }
Edges
E = { (a,b), (b,c), (b,e),(c,a), (c,e), (d,c), (e,b), (e,d)
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 Labeled Graph
2
6 e
b 2
1 3
a 6 d
5
c

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 Walk

e
b
a d

Walk is a sequence of adjacent edges

(e, d), (d, c), (c, a)

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 Path

e
b
a d

Path is a walk where no edge is repeated

Simple path: no node is repeated

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 Cycle

base e
b
3
a 1 d
2
c

Cycle: a walk from a node (base) to itself

Simple cycle: only the base node is repeated

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Finding All Simple Paths

e
b
a d

c
origin

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 Step 1

e
b
a d

c
origin
(c, a)
(c, e)

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 Step 2

e
b
a d

(c, a) c
origin
(c, a), (a, b)
(c, e)
(c, e), (e, b)
(c, e), (e, d)
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 Step 3

e
b
a d

(c, a) c
origin
(c, a), (a, b)
(c, a), (a, b), (b, e)
(c, e)
(c, e), (e, b)
(c, e), (e, d)
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 Step 4

e
b

(c, a) a d

(c, a), (a, b) c

origin
(c, a), (a, b), (b, e)
(c, a), (a, b), (b, e), (e,d)
(c, e)
(c, e), (e, b)
(c, e), (e, d)
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 Trees
root

parent

leaf

child

Trees have no cycles

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 root
Level 0

Level 1
leaf Height 3

Level 2

Level 3

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Binary Trees

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Languages

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A language is a set of strings

String: A sequence of letters

Examples: “cat”, “dog”, “house”,

…

Defined over an alphabet:

 a, b, c, , z

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 Alphabets and Strings
We will use small alphabets: a, b

Strings
a
ab u ab
abba v bbbaaa
baba w abba
aaabbbaabab
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 String Operations

w a1a2  an abba
v b1b2 bm bbbaaa

Concatenation

wv a1a2  anb1b2 bm abbabbbaaa

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w a1a2  an ababaaabbb

Reverse

R
w an  a2 a1 bbbaaababa

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 String Length
w a1a2  an
Length: w n

Examples: abba 4
aa 2
a 1
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 Length of Concatenation

uv  u  v

Example: u aab, u 3
v abaab, v 5

uv  aababaab 8
uv  u  v 3  5 8
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 Empty String
A string with no letters:  , 

Observations:  0

w w w

abba abba abba

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 Substring
Substring of string:
a subsequence of consecutive
characters

String Substring
abbab ab
abbab abba
abbab b
abbab bbab
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 Prefix and Suffix
abbab
Prefixes Suffixes
 abbab w uv
a bbab
prefix
ab bab
suffix
abb ab
abba b
abbab 
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 Another Operation
n
w ww
 
w
n
2
Example: abba  abbaabba

0
Definition: w 
0
abba  
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 The * Operation
 * : the set of all possible strings from
alphabet

 a, b
*  , a, b, aa, ab, ba, bb, aaa, aab,

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 The + Operation
 : the set of all possible strings from

alphabet except

 a, b
*  , a, b, aa, ab, ba, bb, aaa, aab,


  *  

 a, b, aa, ab, ba, bb, aaa, aab,
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 Languages
*
A language is any subset of

Example:  a, b
*  , a, b, aa, ab, ba, bb, aaa,

Languages: 

a, aa, aab

{ , abba, baba, aa, ab, aaaaaa}
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 Note that:

Sets  { } {}

Set size { }   0

Set size {} 1

String length  0
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 Another Example

n n
An infinite language L {a b : n 0}


ab
L abb  L
aabb
aaaaabbbbb
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 Operations on Languages
The usual set operations

a, ab, aaaa bb, ab {a, ab, bb, aaaa}

a, ab, aaaa bb, ab {ab}
a, ab, aaaa  bb, ab a, aaaa
Complement: L  *  L

a, ba  , b, aa, ab, bb, aaa,

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 Reverse

R R
Definition: L {w : w  L}

Examples:ab, aab, baba R

ba, baa, abab

n n
L {a b : n 0}

R n n
L {b a : n 0}
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 Concatenation

Definition: L1L2  xy : x  L1, y  L2 

Example:a, ab, bab, aa

ab, aaa, abb, abaa, bab, baaa

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 Another Operation
Definition: n
L LL L
n
3
a, b a, ba, ba, b 
aaa, aab, aba, abb, baa, bab, bba, bbb
0
Special case: L 

a, bba, aaa0 

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 More Examples

n n
L {a b : n 0}

2 n n m m
L {a b a b : n, m 0}

2
aabbaaabbb  L

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 Star-Closure (Kleene *)

0 1 2
Definition: L* L  L  L 

Example:
 , 
a, bb, 
 
a, bb*  
 aa , abb, bba , bbbb, 
aaa, aabb, abba, abbbb,
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 Positive Closure

 1 2
Definition: L L  L 
L *   

a, bb, 
  
a, bb aa, abb, bba, bbbb, 
aaa, aabb, abba, abbbb,
 
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