THEORY OF MACHINES

(BME503)
By
Prof NAGARAJU B P
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
VVIT,BENGALURU-77
 MODULE-1
Introduction: Mechanisms and machines, Kinematic pairs- types,
degree of freedom, Kinematic chains and their classification, Kinematic
inversions,
Velocity and Acceleration analysis of planar mechanisms Graphical
method: Velocity and Acceleration Analysis of Mechanisms Velocity and
acceleration analysis of four bar mechanism, slider crank mechanism.
Mechanism illustrating Coriolis component of acceleration. Angular
velocity and angular acceleration of links, velocity of rubbing.
Velocity and Acceleration Analysis of Mechanisms (Analytical Method):
Velocity and acceleration analysis of four bar mechanism, slider crank
mechanism using complex algebra method.
 INTRODUCTION
Ancient history reveals that man invented the potter’s wheel.
This wheel was then used with an axle forming a simple mechanism of rotary motion
Another example of ancient times is a lever and fulcrum.
Devices such as motor cars, electrical machines, machine tools, sewing machine,
computer, etc are called machines which are used to eliminate or facilitate the physical
or mental functions of man partly or completely.
MACHINE; contrivance which transforms energy available in one form or another to do
certain type of desired work.
It is assemblage of various parts or members interposed between the source of energy
and the work to be performed for the purpose of transformation of the former into
latter.
A machine is not able to move itself. It must get the motive power from some source.
Its use is just to change the available motive power to do some useful work
Machines can be divided into five groups:
1. Machines for power generation; IC engines, Turbines, Turbogenerators
etc.,
2. Machines for production; Machine tools, sewing machines ,mills, coal
mining machines
3. Machines for transportation-trains,motor cars,aeroplanes,lifts,conveyors,
hoisting, and pumping.
4. Machines for control,computing and operation
5. Cybernetic machines- an industrial complex may consist of different
machines for various processes, but these are united by a common
transport system and by common system of control and operation
Scope of theory of machines
The design of a machine is carried out in the following six steps:
1. To know the purpose for which the machine is required to be used
2. To study the motion required to make the machine to attain the
purpose stated in 1.
3. To select the contrivance to produce the required motion under 2
4. To calculate the force dash static and dynamic dash acting in the
members constituting the contrivances under 3
5. To choose suitable material for the manufacturer of members
mentioned under 4 and
6. To proportion the member of the part of machine after knowing the
force under and the material of manufacture under 5
All the table 6 steps are interdependent.
The steps outlined under 2, 3, and 4 are dealt with by the subject known as
“Theory of machines”.
The steps 5 and 6 are covered by the subject “Design of machine elements”.
The step 2 come under, the heading of “Kinematics of machines”.
In transforming the available source of energy to do some useful work,
there are two variants: motion and force.
The study of relative motion between the various parts of machine and the
study of forces which act on the different members, i.e., step 2 and 5 stated
above are covered by ‘theory of machines’
However the knowledge of the devices which produce motion between the
various parts of a machine, i.e., step 3 stated above will also be dealt by the
same subject
 THEORY OF
MACHINES

DYNAMICS KINEMATICS

STATICS KINETICS
Kinematics of machines is that branch of theory of machines which deals with
the study of relative motion of faults which the machines are constituted,
neglecting consideration of forces producing it.
• This portion of study is also known as pure mechanism or geometry of
machines
• Thus. Kinematics deals with the study of motion from geometric point of
view, i.e., paths of points on links, velocities and accelerations of points and
links.
• The forces applied on the body are not considered in kinematics
Dynamics of machines is that branch of theory of machines which deals with
the study of motion of a machine under the forces acting on different parts of
the machines.
The dynamics of machines is further subdivided as statics and kinetics.
Statics -the study of forces acting on the various parts of machines when these are at rest
is dealt with by statics.
This subject treats with equilibrium of different parts machines considered as members of
structures
Kinetics-The study of forces which are produced due to inertia of moving parts of
machines is dealt with by Kinetics
The inertia of forces are induced due to Mass and change in motion of the parts of
machines
It is possible that a machine designed to withstand statical, when kinetic forces are
induced
Analysis and synthesis- All the problems of the theory of machines can be divided into
two groups-Analysis and synthesis.
The first group investigates the existing mechanisms.
The second group is dedicated to the designing of new mechanisms, new kinematics
schemes of mechanisms and mechanisms with new properties
Resistant bodies; Are those which do not suffer appreciable distortion or
change in physical form by the forces acting on them.
These bodies constitutes parts of machines through which requisite motion
and forces are transmitted.
Resistant bodies need not be rigid and as such these include elastic bodies
such as springs, belts, as well as fluids used in hydraulic press
Element an element is a part of machine which has been manufactured
without the operation of assembling. For example, Bolt & nut are two
machine elements. These are employed to fasten machine parts or other
machine elements together. The design of machine elements known as
machine design. In theory of machines another term link is used which is not
the same as element
A mechanism is a set of machine elements or components or parts
arranged in a specific order to produce a specified motion.
The machine elements or components are considered rigid or resistant
bodies that do not deform under the action of forces.
Resistant bodies are bodies that do not suffer appreciable distortion or
change in physical form due to forces acting on them, e.g. springs, belts,
and fluids.
Elastic bodies are also resistant bodies.
They are capable of transmitting the required forces with negligible
deformation.
Rigid bodies are bodies that do not deform under the action of forces.
All resistant bodies are considered rigid bodies for the purpose of
transmitting motion
Kinematics is a subject that deals with the study of relative motion of parts constituting a
machine, neglecting forces producing the motion.
A structure is an assemblage of a number of resistant bodies meant to take up loads or subjected
to forces having straining actions, but having no relative motion between its members.
Frame is a structure that supports the moving parts of a machine.
KINEMATIC JOINT; A kinematic joint is the connection between two links by a pin. There is
clearance between the pin and the hole in the ends of the links being connected so that there is
free motion of the links
Type of Kinematic Joints; The type of kinematic joints generally used in mechanisms are:
1. Binary joint: In a binary joint, two links are connected at the same joint by a pin, in
Fig.1.1(a).
2. Ternary joint: In a ternary joint, three links are connected at the same joint by a pin. It is
equivalent to two binary joints. In Fig.1.1(b), joints B and C are ternary joints and others are
binary joints.
3. Quaternary joint: When four links are connected at the same joint by a pin, it is called a
quaternary joint. One quaternary joint is equivalent to four binary joints. In Fig.1.1(c), joint B is a
quaternary joint; A, C, E, F are ternary joints; and D is a binary joint
ELEMENTS or LINKS
A link (or element or kinematic link) is a resistant body (or assembly of
resistant bodies) constituting a part (or parts) of the machine, connecting
other parts, which have motion, relative to it.
A slider crank mechanism of an internal combustion engine, shown in
Fig.1.2, consists of four links, namely, (1) frame, (2) crank, (3) connecting
rod and (4) slider.
CLASSIFICATION OF LINKS
Links can be classified as binary, ternary, or quaternary depending upon the ends on
which revolute or turning pairs can be placed, as shown in Fig.1.3. A binary link has two
vertices, a ternary has three vertices, and a quaternary link has four vertices, and so on

There are four types of links: rigid, flexible, fluid, and floating links.
Rigid link: A rigid link does not undergo any deformation while transmitting motion.
Links in general are elastic in nature. They are considered rigid if they do not undergo
appreciable deformation while transmitting motion, e.g. connecting rod, crank, tappet
rod, etc.
Flexible link: A flexible link is one which while transmitting motion is partly deformed in
a manner not to affect the transmission of motion, e.g. belts, ropes, chains, springs, etc.
Fluid link: A fluid link is deformed by having fluid in a closed vessel and the motion is
transmitted through the fluid by pressure, as in the case of a hydraulic press, hydraulic
jack, and fluid brake
Floating link: It is a link which is not connected to the frame
KINEMATIC PAIR
The two links of a machine, when in contact with each other, are said to form a
pair.
A kinematic pair consists of two links that have relative motion between them.
In Fig.1.2, links 1 and 2, 2 and 3, 3 and 4, and 4 and 1 constitute kinematic pairs.
CLASSIFICATION OF KINEMATIC PAIRS
Kinematic pairs may be classified according to the following considerations:
1.Kinematic Pairs According to the Relative Motion
Sliding pair: It consists of two elements connected in such a manner that one is
constrained to have sliding motion relative to another.
For example, a rectangular bar in a rectangular hole (Fig.1.4(a)), piston and
cylinder of an engine, cross-head and guides of a steam engine, ram and its
guides in a shaper, tailstock on the lathe bed, etc. all constitute sliding pairs.
Turning (revolute) pair: It consists of two elements connected in such a
manner that one is constrained to turn or revolve about a fixed axis of
another element. For example, a shaft with collar at both ends
revolving in a circular hole (Fig.1.4(b)) crankshaft turning in a bearing,
cycle wheels revolving over their axles, etc. all constitute turning pairs
Rolling pairs: When two elements are so connected that one is
constrained to roll on another element which is fixed, forms a rolling
pair. Ball and roller bearings, a wheel rolling on a flat surface (Fig.1.4(c))
are examples of rolling pairs.
Screw (or helical) pair: When one element turns about the other
element by means of threads, it forms a screw pair. The motion in this
case is a combination of sliding and turning. The lead screw of a lathe
with nut, bolt with a nut Fig.1.4(d), screw with nut of a jack, etc. are
some examples of screw pairs.
Spherical pair: When one element in the form of a sphere turns about the other
fixed element, it forms a spherical pair. The ball and socket joint Fig.1.4(e), pen
stand, the mirror attachment of vehicles, etc. are some examples of spherical pair.
2. Kinematic Pairs According to the Type of Contact
Lower pair: When the two elements have surface (or area) contact while in
motion and the relative motion is purely turning or sliding, they are called a lower
pair. All sliding pairs, turning pairs, and screw pairs form lower pairs. For example,
nut turning on a screw, shaft rotating in a bearing, universal joint, all pairs of a
slider crank mechanism, pantograph etc., are lower pairs.
Higher pairs: When the two elements have point or line contact while in motion
and the relative motion being the combination of sliding and turning, then the
pair is known as a higher pair. Belts, ropes, and chains drive, gears, cam and
follower, ball and roller bearings, wheel rolling on a surface, etc., all form higher
pairs.
3. Kinematic Pairs According to the Type of Mechanical Constraint
Closed pair: When the two elements of a pair are held together mechanically in such
a manner that only the required type of relative motion occurs, they are called a
closed pair. All lower pairs and some higher pairs (e.g. enclosed cam and follower)
are closed pairs (Fig.1.5(a)).
Unclosed pair: When the two elements of a pair are not held mechanically and are
held in contact by the action of external forces, are called unclosed pair, e.g. cam and
spring loaded follower pair (Fig.1.5(b)).
Degrees of Freedom of Planar
Mechanisms
Mobility of a mechanism: The mobility of a mechanism is defined as the
number of degrees of freedom it possesses. An equivalent definition of
mobility is the minimum number of independent parameters required to
specify the location of every link within a mechanism
Kutzbach criterion: The Kutzbach criterion for determining the number of
degrees of freedom of a planar mechanism is:

where F = degrees of freedom

n = total number of links in a mechanism out of which one is a fixed link
n -1 =number of movable links
p = number of simple joints or lower pairs having one degree of freedom
h = number of higher pairs having two degrees of freedom and so on
When two links are joined by a hinge, two degrees of freedom are lost.
Hence for each joint two degrees of freedom are lost. Therefore, for p
number of joints the number of degrees of freedom lost are 2p. When
a kinematic chain is made up of different type of links, then the number
of lower pairs p is computed as follows:

where number of binary links

number of ternary links, and so on
To determine the degrees of freedom of a mechanism, the presence of a
redundant link or redundant pair may also be considered.
(i) A mechanism may have one or more links which do not introduce any
extra constraint. Such links are called redundant links () and should not be
taken into account. Similarly redundant joints () should also not be taken
into account.
In Fig.1.14(a), links 3 and 4 are parallel and are termed as redundant links,
as none of them produces extra constraint. By removing one of the two
links, the motion remains the same. So one of the two links is considered
for calculating the degrees of freedom.
The corresponding kinematic pairs either between links 4 and 2, and 4
and 5; or 3 and 2, and 3 and 5 are considered as redundant pair.
Therefore, either of the two links and the corresponding kinematic pair
should be considered while calculating the degrees of freedom.
In Fig.1.14(b), links AB and CD are identical and each leads to same
constraint.
(ii) Sometimes one or more links of a mechanism may have redundant
degrees of freedom. If a link can be moved without causing any
movement in the rest of the mechanism then the link is said to have
redundant degree of freedom (Fr).
In Fig.1.15(a), the link 3 can slide without causing any movement to the
mechanism. Thus link 3 represents one redundant degree of freedom.
In Fig.1.15(b), roller can rotate without causing any movement in the
rest of the mechanism. Thus Eq. (1) can be modified as:
Planar Mechanisms with Lower
Pairs Only
• For linkages with lower pairs only, h=0, and F= 3(n-1)-2p
• A joint connecting k links at a single joint must be counted as (k -1) joints.
• Only four types of joints are commonly found in planar mechanisms.
• These are the revolute, the prismatic, the rolling contact joints (each having
one degree of freedom), and the cam or gear joint (each having two degrees
of freedom).
• The following definitions apply to the actual degrees of freedom of a device:
F ≥1: the device is a mechanism with F degrees of freedom.
F= 0: the device is a statically determinate structure.
F≤-1: the device is a statically indeterminate structure
Gruebler’s criterion: For a constrained motion, F =1, so that
1 =3(n -1) -2p -h or 2p+h - 3n+ 4 =0 Eq. represents the Gruebler’s
criterion. If h =0, then p =(3n/2) -2
Therefore, a planar mechanism with F= 1 and having only lower pairs,
cannot have odd number of links. with p= J and n =L.
As p and n are to be whole numbers, the relation can be satisfied only if
n is even.
For possible linkages made of binary links only,
n =4, p =4 No excess turning pair
n= 6, p =7 One excess turning pair
n =8, p =10 Two excess turning pair
FOUR-BAR CHAIN
A four-bar chain has been shown in Fig. It consists of four binary links. Link AD is
fixed (called frame), AB is the crank (or driver link), BC is the coupler (or
connecting rod), and CD the lever (or rocker or follower link). Θ is the input angle
and ɸ the angle of transmission. The coupler BC may be a ternary link. The
number of degrees of freedom of the four-bar chain is one.
A link that makes complete revolutions is the crank, the link opposite to the fixed
link is the coupler, and the fourth link a lever or rocker, if it oscillates or another
crank, if it rotates.
The four-bar mechanism with all its pairs as turning pairs is called the “quadric
cycle chain.”
When one of these turning pairs is replaced by a slider pair, the chain becomes
“single slider chain.”
When two turning pairs are replaced by slider pairs, it is called a “double slider
chain” or a “crossed double slider chain,” depending on whether the two slider
pairs are adjacent or crossed.
Find the equivalent mechanisms with turning pairs for the mechanisms
shown in Figs.1.23(a) to (d).
(a) A spring can be replaced by two binary links. Therefore, the
equivalent mechanism is as shown in Fig.1.23a(ii).
GRASHOF’S LAW
This law states that for a four-bar mechanism, the sum of the lengths of
the largest and the shortest links should be less than or equal to the
sum of the lengths of the other links,
that is, (l + s) ≤(p + q) (where l, s lengths of the longest and the shortest
links, respectively.
p, q lengths of the other two links.
Consider the four-bar chain shown in Fig.1.25. Let the length of fixed
link O₂ O₄ =l₁ , crank O₂ A = l₂ , coupler AB = l₃ , and lever BO₄ = l₄ .
The following types of mechanisms are obtained by adjusting the
lengths of various links:
Crank–Crank (or Double Crank) Mechanism
Rocker–Rocker (or Double Rocker) Mechanism
Class-II Four-Bar Linkage
When (l +s) (p+ q), the linkage is known as a class-II four-bar linkage. In
such a mechanism, fixing of any of the links always results in rocker-rocker
mechanism, as shown in Fig.1.28(b).
INVERSION OF MECHANISMS
A kinematic chain becomes a mechanism when one of its links is fixed.
Therefore, as many number of mechanisms can be obtained as many are the
links in the kinematic chain. This method of obtaining different mechanisms by
fixing different links of a kinematic chain is called inversion of the mechanism.
The relative motion between the various links is not altered as a result of
inversion, but their absolute motion with respect to the fixed link may alter
drastically.
Some of the important inversions of a four-bar chain are:
1. Beam engine
2. Coupled wheel of locomotive
3. Watt’s indicator mechanism
Single slider-crank chain:
The single slider-crank chain shown in Fig.1.34 consists of three turning pairs
and one sliding pair. Link 1 corresponds to the frame of the mechanism,
which is fixed. Link 2 is the crank and link 3 the connecting rod. The link 4 is
the slider. It is used to convert rotary motion into reciprocating motion and
vice-versa. Its important applications are in steam engines, internal
combustion engines, reciprocating compressors, etc. If the straight line path
of the slider is offset from the fixed point of the crank then it is called offset
slider-crank chain. The offset is called the eccentricity.
Inversions of a Single-Slider Crank Chain
The inversions of a single slider crank chain are as follows:
1. Pendulum pump
2. Oscillating cylinder engine
3. Rotary internal combustion engine
4. Crank and slotted lever quick-return motion mechanism
5. Whitworth quick-return motion mechanism
1. Pendulum pump: This inversion mechanism is obtained by fixing the link
4, i.e., the sliding pair, as shown in Fig.1.35. When the link 2 (i.e., the crank)
rotates, the link 3 (i.e., connecting rod) oscillates about a pin pivoted to
fixed link 4 at C and the piston attached to the piston rod (link 1)
reciprocates in the cylinder. It is used to supply feed water to a boiler.
2. Oscillating cylinder engine: In this mechanism, as shown in Fig.1.36, link 3
is fixed. When the crank (link 2) rotates, the piston attached to piston rod (link
1) reciprocates and the cylinder (link 4) oscillates about a pin pivoted to the
fixed link at A
3. Rotary internal combustion engine (Gnome engine): It consists of several
cylinders in one plane and all revolve about fixed centre O, as shown in
Fig.1.37. The crank (link 2) is fixed. When the connecting rod (link 4) rotates,
the piston (link 3) reciprocates inside the cylinder forming link 1
4. Crank and slotted lever quick-return motion mechanism: In this
mechanism, as shown in Fig.1.38, the link AC (link 3) corresponding to
the connecting rod is fixed. The driving crank CB (link 2) revolves about
centre C. A slider (link 1) attached to the crank pin at B slides along the
slotted lever AP (link 4) and make the slotted lever oscillate about the
pivoted point A. A short link PQ transmits the motion from AP to the
arm which reciprocates with the tool along the line of stroke. The line
of stroke is perpendicular to AC produced. This mechanism is mostly
used in shaping machines, slotting machine, and rotary internal
combustion engines.
Time of cutting stroke/Time of return stroke =
Length of stroke =2 AP (CB/AC)
5. Whitworth quick-return motion mechanism: In this mechanism, as
shown in Fig.1.39, link CD (link 2) is fixed. The driving crank CA (link 3)
rotates about C. The slider (link 4) attached to the crank pin at A slides
along the slotted lever PA (link 1), which oscillates about pivot D.
The connecting rod PQ carries the ram at Q with cutting tool. The ram
reciprocates along the line of stroke. It is used in shaping and slotting
machines
Time of cutting stroke/ Time of return stroke =
Length of stroke =2 PD
 6. Toggle mechanism:
This mechanism has many applications where it is necessary to
overcome a large resistance with a small driving force. Fig.1.40 shows the
toggle mechanism; links 4 and 5 are of equal length. As the angles
decrease and links 4 and 5 approach being collinear, the
Force F required to overcome a given resistance P decreases as
F = 2P tan approaches zero, for a given F, P approaches infinity.
A stone crusher utilizes this mechanism to overcome a large resistance
with a small force.
It can be used in numerous toggle clamping devices, for holding work
pieces
DOUBLE SLIDER-CRANK CHAIN
A kinematic chain consisting of two turning pairs and two sliding pairs
is called double slider–crank chain, as shown in Fig.1.41. Links 3 and 4
reciprocate, link 2 rotates and link 1 is fixed. Two pairs of the same kind
are adjacent.
Inversions of Double Slider–Crank Chain The inversions of double
slider-crank chain are as follows:
1. Donkey pump
2. Oldham’s coupling
3. Elliptical trammel
4. Scotch yoke.
1. Donkey Pump: Figure 1.42 shows a donkey pump, in which link 2
(crank) rotates about point A. One end of the crank is connected to the
piston, through the piston rod, which reciprocates vertically in the
pump cylinder. This cylinder together with the body of the pump
represents the fixed link 1. The other end of the crank is connected to
the slider (link 3) which reciprocates horizontally in the cylinder.
2. Oldham’s coupling: The Oldham’s coupling shown in Fig.1.43, is used
to connect two parallel shafts, the distance between whose axes is
small and variable. The shafts connected by the coupling rotate at the
same speed. The shafts have flanges at the ends, in which slots are cut.
These form links 1 and 3. An intermediate piece circular in shape and
having tongues at right angles on opposite sides, is fitted between the
flanges of the two shafts in such a way that the tongues of the
intermediate piece get fitted in the slots of the flanges.
The intermediate piece forms link 4, which slides or reciprocates in links
1 and 3. The link 2 is fixed.
Maximum sliding speed of each tongue along its slot =Distance
between the axes of the shafts x angular velocity of each shaft
3. Elliptical trammel: It is a device to draw ellipses. Fig.1.44 shows an
elliptical trammel in which two grooves are cut at right angles in a plate
that is fixed. The plate forms the fixed link 4. Two sliding blocks are
fitted into the grooves. The slides form two sliding links 1 and 3. The
link join ing slides form the link 2. Any point on link 2 or on its extension
traces out an ellipse on the fixed plate, when relative motion occurs.
4. Scotch yoke: This mechanism gives simple harmonic motion. Its early
application was on steam pumps, but it is now used as a mechanism on
a test machine to produce vibrations. It is also used as a sine-cosine
generator for computing elements. Fig.1.45 shows a sketch of scotch
yoke mechanism.
In a crank and slotted lever quick-return mechanism shown in Fig.1.46,
the distance between the fixed centres is 300 mm and the length of the
driving crank is 150 mm. Find the inclination of the slotted lever with
the vertical in the extreme position and the ratio of time of cutting
stroke to return stroke
In a Whitworth quick return motion mechanism, as shown in Fig.1.47,
the distance between the fixed centres is 80 mm and the length of the
driving crank is 100 mm. The length of the slotted lever is 180 mm and
the length of the connecting rod is 150 mm. Calculate the ratio of the
time of cutting to return strokes
The distance between two parallel shafts connected by Oldham’s
coupling is 25 mm. The driving shaft revolves at 240 rpm. Determine
the maximum speed of sliding of the tongue of the intermediate piece
along its groove.
VELOCITIES IN MECHANISMS
Consider the slider–crank mechanism, as shown in Fig.2.9(a), in which
the crank OC is rotating clock wise with angular speed .
PC is the connecting rod and P is the slider or piston. The linear velocity
of C, OC · To draw the velocity diagram, draw a line oc from point o, as
shown in Fig.2.9(b), representing the velocity of point C to a convenient
scale. From point c draw a line perpendicular to CP. The velocity of
slider P is horizontal. Therefore, from point o draw a line parallel to OP
to intersect the line drawn perpendicular to CP at p. Then the velocity
of the piston, op and the velocity of piston P relative to crank pin C is
cp. To find the velocity of any point E in CP, we have
CE/CP= ce/cp or ce =(CE/CP) · cp
Thus locate point e in cp, join oe. Thenoe
Rubbing velocities are:

P
C:+).
VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION
DIAGRAMS
Acceleration Diagram for Slider-Crank Mechanism
CORIOLIS ACCELERATION
ANALYTICAL ANALYSIS OF SLIDER-CRANK MECHANISM
COMPLEX- ALGEBRAIC VELOCITY ANALYSIS
For the four-bar linkage in the arbitrary posture shown in Fig. 3.17a,
derive expressions for the relationships between the angular velocity of
the input link 2 and the angular velocities of the coupler link 3 and the
output link 4