1.

SPRING CONTROL
Two phosphor bronze hair springs A and B coiled in opposite
direction and acting against the other used in spring control
One end of the each spring is attached to the spindle.
Under the influence of the deflecting torque ,when the pointer
moves, one of the spring unwinds and other gets twisted in.
The twist produces controlling torque which is directly portioned
to the angle of deflection of the moving system

Tc= ϴ
 When the deflecting torque Td and controlling torque Tc are equal,
the pointer comes to rest in its final positon

 At final deflecting postion Td=Tc

 But

 Therefore Td propotional to ϴ
2.Gravity control
EDDY CURRENT DAMPING
i) Eddy current damping with a
metal
 This force (torque ) proportional to the strength of the
magnetic field and current produced.

 Where the eddy currents proportional to the velocity of the

moving system

 Hence if the strength of the magnetic field is constant damping

force (torque ) is directly proportional to the velocity of the
moving system and its zero when the moving system is t rest
T α veleocity
 2. Eddy current damping with metal former :

 In PMMC instrument eddy current damping is obtained

by employing a metallic former on which the coil is
wound

 Former act as a single turn coil rotating in the field of

permanent magnet thus producing eddy current and
damping force on the moving system
Ammeter and Voltmeter
PERMANENT MAGNET MOVING
COIL INSTRUMENT (PMMC)
 most accurate type for the measurement of DC current or voltage.

Construction of PMMC instruments

 Components :
 Deflecting system
 Magnet System
 Control Spring
 Damping

 Pointer and Scale

 Deflecting system:

 The moving coil made up of copper is wound with many turns

on the rectangular Aluminum former.

 This Aluminum former is pivoted on the jewelled bearing.

 The coil can move freely in the magnetic field produced by the
Permanent Magnet System.

 The current or voltage to be measured is passed through the coil.

 The coil experience a force and provide necessary deflection.

 Magnet System

 Simple U shaped permanent magnet made of Alcomax or Alnico

 Theses magnets can produce field of the order of 0.1 to 1 Wb/m2.

 Control Spring

 The controlling torque in PMMC Instruments is provided by two

phospher bronze hair springs mounted on the jewel bearing.

 The springs also serve to lead current in and out of the coil.
 Damping:

 Damping torque in PMMC instruments are produced by the movement

of Aluminum former in the magnetic field of Permanent Magnet.

 Due to movement of Aluminum former an emf is induced resulting in

eddy current which opposes the motion thereby provides a damping
torque.
 Pointer and Scale

 The pointer is carried by the spindle and moves over a

graduated scale.
Torque equation
 Frictional error.
 Temperature error: As temp increases spring
becomes more flexible and magnets weaker.
 Error owing to weakening of magnet due to ageing.
 Stray magnetic field: usually not affected but due to
presence of iron in working parts effects of external
magnetic field increases.
 Advantages of permanent magnet
moving coil instruments

 The scale is uniformly divided as the current is directly

proportional to deflection of the pointer. Hence it is very easy
to measure quantities from these instruments.
 Power consumption is also very low in these types of
nstruments.
 A high torque to weight ratio.
 a single instrument can be used for measuring various
quantities by using different values of shunts and multipliers.
 Damping effective and reliable.
 No hysteresis loss because of Al former.
Disadvantages of permanent magnet moving
coil instruments

 These instruments cannot measure AC quantities.

 The cost of these instruments is high as compared
to moving iron instruments.
 Error due to ageing of magnets.
 –
–

–
Errors in PMMC instruments
MI INSTRUMENTS
 ATTRACTION TYPE
Repulsion Type
 Radial & co axial
DYNAMOMETER TYPE WATTMETER
 Current transformer

 Transformation ratio R =
 Instrument transformer

 Current transformer ( CT) - current measurement

 Potential transformer (PT) – voltage measurement

 used in conjunction with std or low range

instruments

 Function : step down the current or voltage to value

small enough to be measured by the instruments
Ratios in current transformer
Burden of an instrument transformer
 Maximum amount of load or power that the
transformer can handle without affecting its
accuracy and performance

 “ The rated burden is the volt-ampere loading

which is permissible without errors exceeding
the limit for the particular class of accuracy “
 Current transformer
 Used to measure current

 Primary winding – very few turns

 Secondary – larger number of turns

 Primary connected – series with line carrying current to be measured

 Ammeter and wattmeter current coil connected across he secondary

 Secondary never open circuited

 One of the terminals of secondary winding is earthed

 Errors in current transformer

 Transformation Ratio=
Errors …………….
1. Ratio error :

 Transformation ratio (R ) is different from nominal

ratio Kn
 R depends Im =magnetizing component
 Ie= loss component (working
component )
 Is = secondary current
 This difference will result in error


Errors ……….
 Phase angle errors :

 Secondary winding shall be displaced by exactly

180 degree from the primary winding .
 Potential Transformer
 Function : step down a high voltage to a safe value – measured by
using low voltage instrument

 Primary winding – larger number of turns

 Secondary winding – lesser number of turns

 Primary winding connected across the voltage to be measured

 Secondary winding connected across the voltmeter
Extension of range of wattmeter using CT and
PT-
 By using CT and PT in conjunction with wattmeter , high power
measurements can be done
 Both transformers step down the high voltage and high current to a
value measured by wattmeter
Extension of ammeter range using instrument
transformer
 Range above 0-250 A , Ct is used in conjunction with 0-5 A MI
ammeter
 CT ratio 10: 1 , load current is = 10 times reading on the AC
meter
 Ie IL= 3X10=30 A
Range Extension of Voltmeter by Potential
Transformer
 For ranges higher than 0- 750 V , power wasted in multiplier
would b e excessive
 PT in conjunction with 0-110 V MI voltmeter is used
 Transformation ratio 20:1 , VL – 20 times the Voltmeter reading
Energy meter
Errors – 1 phase induction type Em
 Speed of rotation proportional to power , only if angle Δ =90
degree
 Flux lags behind supply voltage by 90 degree

 Pressure coil – higly inductive and less resistive

 But pressure coil is not purely inductive – there lags les than
90 degree
 Compensation :-

 1. placing a few turns of fairly thick wire around the central

limp of the shunt magnet and closing the circuit by low
adjustment resistance

 2. copper shading bands around the central limp of the shunt

magnet
 Copper bands helps to concentrate the magnetic bands help
to concentrate th emagnetic field around the coil, increasing
the flux density increase the inductance
Friction compensation

 Friction of moving parts- slowing down meter

disc, inaccurate energy registration and hence error
in measurement.

 Need to provide small torque in the direction of

rotationo the disc
 Using shading loop placed in between the center
pole of the shunt magnet and the disc .

 Interaction of the flux which are shaded and

unshaded by this loop and the currents they are
induced in the disc results a small driving torque,
Creeping

 Creeping : over compensation of friction leads to

creeping.

 Slow but continuous rotation of the disc when there

is no current flowing through the current coil and
only the pressure coil is energized
 Creeping compensation – two diametrically
opposite holes drilled in the disc

 Disc remains stationary when one of the hole comes

under the one of the pole of the shunt magnet.

 Causes sufficient distortion in the magnetic field

 Small piece of iron is attached to the edge of the
disc .

 Force of attraction exerted by the brake magnet on

the iron piece is sufficient to prevent creeping
 Hall effect multiplier

 Used for measurement of instantaneous power

 Hall effect :- phenomenon where voltage (hall
voltage ) is generated across a conductor when

 1. exposed to a magnetic field

perpendicular
 2. carrying a current
 Hall effect multiplier
 Current coil – series – load current – produce a magnetic field –
perpendicular to hall element

 Pressure coil – hall effect element – across voltage-Carries a current ip

 Hall voltage is produced

 The output voltage of the hall effect multiplier is propotional to

instantaneous power

-
 Two wattmeter are connected to measure the input
of a balanced 3 phase circuit indicates 2000 watts
and 500 watts .what will be the power factor of the
circuit when both the readings are positive.
Two wattmeters are connected to measure the power consumed by a 3-phase
(6) balanced load. One of the wattmeters read 1500 Watts and the other 700
Watts. Find power factor of the load, (i)when both the readings are positive, and
(ii)when the reading of the second wattmeter is obtained after reversing its
current coil connection