1

Functions and Models

 Class 4
Continuity
 Continuity

A continuous process is one that takes place

gradually, without interruptionor abrupt change.

The limit of a function as x approaches a can often be found

simply by calculating the value of the function at a .

3
 Continuity

A function is continuous if it holds

Graphical Presentation

4
 Continuity

The graph on the left is continuous and the one on

the right is discontinuous

F is not defined at 1
Limit doesn’t exist at 3
At 5

Similarly, what about

5
 Continuity

All are discontinuous

a.F is not defined at 2

b.F(0) is not defined

c..

d. does not exist as n is an integer

6
 Continuity

7
 Continuity

A function is continuous from right or left if

followings are true

Right Left

8
 Continuity

A function is continuous on an interval if it is continuous at

every number in the interval. (If f is defined only on one side
of an endpoint of the interval, we understand continuous at
the endpoint to mean continuous from the right or
continuous from the left.)

9
Continuity

10
Continuity

11
Continuity

12
Continuity

13
Continuity

14
Continuity

15
Continuity

16
Continuity

17
Limits Involving Infinity

18
 Limits Involving Infinity
What happens when

Or when x approaches to a value and function of x becomes

undefined

If we consider infinity as a number, then it holds and

is defined but in this case infinity reflects non
existence hence

19
Limits Involving Infinity

20
 Limits Involving Infinity
All the cases hold true that is

21
Limits Involving Infinity

22
 Limits Involving Infinity
Limits at Infinity

In computing infinite limits, we let approach a number and

the result was that the values of became large (positive or
negative).
Now let see if the X approaches to infinity then see what
happens

=>

23
Limits Involving Infinity

Where L is close to 1

24
 Limits Involving Infinity
We apply this to get the assymptotes

25
 Limits Involving Infinity
Equilateral hyperbola

26
 Limits Involving Infinity
Infinite Limits at Infinity

27
 Class 5
Derivatives

28
Derivatives and Rates of Change

29
 Derivatives and Rates of Change

The problem of finding the tangent line to a curve and the

problem of finding the velocity of an object both involve
finding the same type of limit.

This special type of limit is called a derivative and we will

see that it can be interpreted as a rate of change in any of
the natural or social sciences or engineering.

30
The Tangent Problem

31
The Tangent Problems
The word tangent is derived from the Latin word
tangens, which means “touching.”

Thus a tangent to a curve is a line that touches the

curve.

In other words, a tangent line should have the same

direction as the curve at the point of contact.

32
 The Tangent Problems
For a circle we could simply follow Euclid and say that a tangent is a
line that intersects the circle once and only once, as in Figure 1(a).

Figure 1(a)

For more complicated curves this definition is inadequate. 33

 The Tangent Problems

Figure 1(b) shows two lines l and t passing through a point

P on a curve C.

The line l intersects

C only once, but it
certainly does not
look like what we Figure 1(b)

think of as a tangent.

The line t, on the other hand, looks like a tangent but it

34
intersects C twice.
Example 1
Find an equation of the tangent line to the parabola
y = x2 at the point P (1, 1).

Solution:
We will be able to find an equation of the tangent
line t as soon as we know its slope m.

The difficulty is that we know only one point, P, on t,

whereas we need two points to compute the slope.35
Example 1 – Solution cont’d

But observe that we can compute an approximation

to m by
choosing a nearby point Q (x, x2) on the parabola
(as in Figure 2) and computing the slope mPQ of the
secant line PQ. [A secant line, from the Latin
word secans, meaning cutting, is a line that cuts
(intersects) a curve more than once.]

Figure 2 36
Example 1 – Solution cont’d

We choose x  1 so that Q  P. Then

For instance, for the point Q (1.5, 2.25) we have

37
Example 1 – Solution cont’d

The tables in the margin show the values of mPQ for several values of
x close to 1.

The closer Q is to P, the closer x is to 1 and, it appears from the

tables, the closer mPQ is to 2. 38
Example 1 – Solution cont’d
This suggests that the slope of the tangent line t should be m = 2.
We say that the slope of the tangent line is the limit of the slopes of the
secant lines, and we express this symbolically by writing
and

Assuming that the slope of the tangent line is indeed 2, we use the
point-slope form of the equation of a line
[y – y1 = m(x – x1)] to write the equation of the tangent line through (1, 1)
as
y – 1 = 2(x – 1) or y = 2x – 1

39
Example 1 – Solution cont’d

Figure 3 illustrates the limiting process that occurs

in this example.

Q approaches P from the right

Figure 3

40
Example 1 – Solution cont’d

Q approaches P from the left

Figure 3

As Q approaches P along the parabola, the

corresponding secant lines rotate about P and
approach the tangent line t.

41
The Velocity Problem

42
Example 3
Suppose that a ball is dropped from the upper observation
deck of the CN Tower in Toronto, 450 m above the ground.
Find the velocity of the ball after 5 seconds.

Solution:
Through experiments carried out four centuries ago,
Galileo discovered that the distance fallen by any freely
falling body is proportional to the square of the time it has
been falling. (This model for free fall neglects air
resistance.)
43
Example 3 – Solution cont’d

If the distance fallen after t seconds is denoted by s

(t) and measured in meters, then Galileo’s law is
expressed by the equation

s (t) = 4.9t 2

The difficulty in finding the velocity after 5 seconds

is that we are dealing with a single instant of time (t
= 5), so no time interval is involved.
44
Example 3 – Solution cont’d

However, we can approximate the desired quantity

by computing the average velocity over the brief
time interval of a tenth of a second from t = 5 to t =
5.1:

45
Example 3 – Solution cont’d

The following table shows the results of similar

calculations of the average velocity over
successively smaller time periods.

46
Example 3 – Solution cont’d

It appears that as we shorten the time period, the average

velocity is becoming closer to 49 m/s.

The instantaneous velocity when t = 5 is defined to be

the limiting value of these average velocities over shorter
and shorter time periods that start at t = 5.

Thus it appears that the (instantaneous) velocity after 5

seconds is

v = 49 m/s 47
The difference quotient, definition of
derivative

48
Slope
Slope: the rate at which a line rises or falls

For a line, the rate (or slope) is the same at every

point on the line.

For graphs other than lines, the rate at which the

graph rises or falls changes from point to point.

49
Slope
This parabola is rising more
quickly at point A than it is at
point B.

At the vertex, point C, the

graph levels off.

At point D the graph is

falling.
50
Slope
To determine the rate at which a graph rises or falls
at a single point, we can find the slope of the
tangent line to the point.

How do we calculate the slope of a tangent line?

51
The Difference Quotient
The derivative is the slope of the tangent line to a
graph f(x), and is usually denoted f’(x).

To calculate the slope of the tangent line we will

use the difference quotient.

52
The Difference Quotient

53
Limit Definition of the Derivative
The derivative is the formula which gives
the slope of the tangent line at any point x
for f (x), and is denoted

f ( x  x )  f ( x )
f '( x)  lim
x 0 x

provided this limit exists.

54
 Derivatives
The derivative of the function y = f (x) may be
expressed as …

f '( x) “f prime of x”
Prime notation
y' “y prime”

dy
Leibniz notation “the derivative of y with respect to x”
dx

55
Derivatives
The process of finding derivatives is called
differentiation.

A function is differentiable at a point if its derivative

exists at that point.

56
Limit Definition of the Derivative
Use the limit definition to find the derivative of:

f ( x ) x 2  3 x  5

f ( x  x )  f ( x )
f '( x )  lim
x 0 x

57
 Limit Definition of the Derivative

f ( x ) x 2  3 x  5
f ( x  x )  f ( x )
f '( x )  lim
x 0 x
( x  x) 2  3( x  x )  5  ( x 2  3 x  5)
f '( x)  lim
x 0 x
x 2  2 xx  (x ) 2  3 x  3x  5  x 2  3 x  5
f '( x)  lim
x  0 x

58
 Limit Definition of the Derivative
2
2 xx  (x)  3x
f '( x)  lim
x  0 x
x(2 x  x  3)
f '( x)  lim
x  0 x

f '( x) 2 x  3

A formula for finding the

slope of the tangent line
of f (x) at a given point.
59
Limit Definition of the Derivative
Use the limit definition to find the derivative of:

f ( x) 8 x 2  1

f ( x  x )  f ( x )
f '( x )  lim
x 0 x

60
Limit Definition of the Derivative

f ( x) 8 x 2  1
f ( x  x )  f ( x )
f '( x )  lim
x 0 x
8( x  x) 2  1  (8 x 2  1)
f '( x)  lim
x 0 x

8( x 2  2 xx  (x) 2 )  1  8 x 2  1
f '( x)  lim
x 0 x

61
 Limit Definition of the Derivative
8 x 2  16 xx  8(x) 2  1  8 x 2  1
f '( x )  lim
x 0 x

x(16 x  8x)
f '( x)  lim
x 0 x

f '( x) 16 x

A formula for finding the

slope of the tangent line
of f (x) at a given point.
62
Differentiability
Not every function is differentiable at all points.
Some common situations in which a function will
not be differentiable at a point include:
1. Vertical tangent lines
2. Discontinuities (like a hole, break, or vertical

asymptote)
3. Sharp turns (called cusps & nodes)

63
Differentiability

64
Differentiability

65
Differentiability

66
Differentiability

67
The Derivative is…
computed by finding the limit of the difference
quotient as ∆x approaches 0.

the slope of a function at a point.

the slope of the tangent line to a graph f (x), and is

usually denoted f’(x).

the instantaneous rate of change of a function. 68

Class 6
Secant lines, average and
instantaneous

69
Tangents

70
Tangents
If a curve C has equation y = f (x) and we want to
find the
tangent line to C at the point P (a, f (a)), then we
consider a
nearby point Q (x, f (x)), where x  a, and compute
the slope
of the secant line PQ:
Then we let Q approach P along the curve C by
letting
x approach a.

71
Tangents
If mPQ approaches a number m, then we define the
tangent t to be the line through P with slope m.
(This amounts to saying that the tangent line is the
limiting position of the secant line PQ as Q
approaches P. See Figure 1.)

Figure 1
72
Tangents

73
Example 1
Find an equation of the tangent line to the parabola
y = x2 at the point P(1, 1).

Solution:
Here we have a = 1 and f (x) = x2, so the slope is

74
Example 1 – Solution
cont’
d

Using the point-slope form of the equation of a line,

we find that an equation of the tangent line at (1, 1)
is

y – 1 = 2(x – 1) or y = 2x – 1

75
Tangents
We sometimes refer to the slope of the tangent line to a curve at a point as the
slope of the curve at the point.

The idea is that if we zoom in far enough toward the point, the curve looks
almost like a straight line.

Figure 2 illustrates this procedure for the curve y = x2 in Example 1.

Zooming in toward the point (1, 1) on the parabola y = x2

Figure 2
76
Tangents
The more we zoom in, the more the parabola looks
like a line.

In other words, the curve becomes almost

indistinguishable from its tangent line.

There is another expression for the slope of a

tangent line that is sometimes easier to use.

77
Tangents
If h = x – a, then x = a + h and so the slope of the
secant line PQ is

(See Figure 3 where the case h > 0 is illustrated

and Q is to the right of P. If it happened that h < 0,
however, Q would be to the left of P.)

Figure 3
78
Tangents
Notice that as x approaches a, h approaches 0
(because
h = x – a) and so the expression for the slope of the
tangent line in Definition 1 becomes

79
Velocities

80
Velocities
In general, suppose an object moves along a straight line according to
an equation of motion s = f (t), where s is the displacement (directed
distance) of the object from the origin at time t.
The function f that describes
the motion is called the
position function of the
object. In the time interval
from t = a to t = a + h the
change in position
is f (a + h) – f (a).
(See Figure 5.)
Figure 5

81
Velocities
The average velocity over this time interval is

82
Velocities
which is the same as the slope of the secant line
PQ in Figure 6.

Figure 6

83
Velocities
Now suppose we compute the average velocities over shorter and
shorter time intervals [a, a + h].

In other words, we let h approach 0. As in the example of the

falling ball, we define the velocity (or instantaneous velocity) v
(a) at time t = a to be the limit of these average velocities:

This means that the velocity at time t = a is equal to the slope of

the tangent line at P.
84
Example 3
Suppose that a ball is dropped from the upper observation
deck of the CN Tower, 450 m above the ground.
(a) What is the velocity of the ball after 5 seconds?
(b) How fast is the ball traveling when it hits the ground?
Solution:
We will need to find the velocity both when t = 5 and when
the ball hits the ground, so it’s efficient to start by finding the
velocity at a general time t = a.

85
Example 3 – Solution cont’
d
Using the equation of motion s = f (t) = 4.9t 2, we
have

86
Example 3 – Solution cont’
(a) The velocity after 5 s is v(5) = (9.8)(5) d
= 49
(b) Since the observation deck is 450 m above the ground, m/s.
the ball will hit
the ground at the time t1 when
s(t1) = 450, that is,

4.9t12 = 450
This gives
t12 = and t1 =  9.6 s
The velocity of the ball as it hits the ground is therefore
v(t1) = 9.8t1
= 9.8  94 m/s

87
Derivatives

88
Derivatives
We have seen that the same type of limit arises in finding
the slope of a tangent line (Equation 2) or the velocity of an
object (Equation 3).
In fact, limits of the form

arise whenever we calculate a rate of change in any of the

sciences or engineering, such as a rate of reaction in
chemistry or a marginal cost in economics.
Since this type of limit occurs so widely, it is given a special
name and notation.
89
Derivatives

If we write x = a + h, then we have h = x – a and h

approaches 0 if and only if x approaches a.
Therefore an equivalent way of stating the definition
of the derivative, as we saw in finding tangent lines,
is
90
Example 4
Find the derivative of the function f (x) = x2 – 8x + 9
at the number a.

Solution:
From Definition 4 we have

91
Example 4 – Solution
cont’
d

92
Derivatives
We defined the tangent line to the curve y = f (x) at
the point P (a, f (a)) to be the line that passes
through P and has slope m given by Equation 1 or
2.

Since, by Definition 4, this is the same as the

derivative f (a), we can now say the following.

93
Derivatives
If we use the point-slope form of the equation of a
line, we can write an equation of the tangent line to
the curve
y = f (x) at the point (a, f (a)):

y – f (a) = f (a)(x – a)

94
Rates of Change

95
Rates of Change
Suppose y is a quantity that depends on another
quantity x. Thus y is a function of x and we write y =
f (x). If x changes from x1 to x2, then the change in x
(also called the increment of x) is

x = x2 – x1

and the corresponding change in y is

y = f (x2) – f (x1)
96
Rates of Change
The difference quotient

is called the average rate of

change of y with respect to x
over the interval [x1, x2] and
can be interpreted as the slope
of the secant line PQ
in Figure 8. Figure 8
97
Rates of Change
By analogy with velocity, we consider the average rate of
change over smaller and smaller intervals by letting x2
approach x1 and therefore letting Δx approach 0.

The limit of these average rates of change is called the

(instantaneous) rate of change of y with respect to x at
x = x1, which is interpreted as the slope of the tangent to the
curve y = f (x) at P(x1, f (x1)):

We recognize this limit as being the derivative f (x1).

98
Rates of Change
We know that one interpretation of the derivative f
(a) is as the slope of the tangent line to the curve y
= f (x) when
x = a. We now have a second interpretation:

The connection with the first interpretation is that if

we sketch the curve y = f (x), then the instantaneous
rate of change is the slope of the tangent to this
curve at the point where x = a.
99
Rates of Change
This means that when the derivative is large (and
therefore the curve is steep, as at the point P in
Figure 9), the y-values change rapidly.

Figure 9
The y-values are changing rapidly at P and slowly at Q.
100
 Rates of Change

When the derivative is small, the curve is relatively flat (as

at point Q) and the y-values change slowly.
In particular, if s = f (t) is the position function of a particle
that moves along a straight line, then f (a) is the rate of
change of the displacement s with respect to the time t.
In other words, f (a) is the velocity of the particle at time
t = a.
The speed of the particle is the absolute value of the
velocity, that is, | f (a) |.

101
 Example 6
A manufacturer produces bolts of a fabric with a fixed width. The cost
of producing x yards of this fabric is
C = f (x) dollars.

(a) What is the meaning of the derivative f (x)? What are its units?

(b) In practical terms, what does it mean to say that f (1000) = 9?

(c) Which do you think is greater, f (50) or f (500)? What

about f (5000)?

102
Example 6(a) – Solution

The derivative f (x) is the instantaneous rate of

change of C with respect to x; that is, f (x) means
the rate of change of the production cost with
respect to the number of yards produced.

Because the units for f (x) are the same as the

units for the difference quotient C/x.
Since C is measured in dollars and x in yards, it
follows that the units for f (x) are dollars per yard. 103
Example 6(b) – Solution
cont’
The statement that f (1000) = 9 means that, after d
1000 yards of fabric have been manufactured, the
rate at which the production cost is increasing is
$9/yard.
(When x = 1000, C is increasing 9 times as fast as x.)
Since x = 1 is small compared with x = 1000, we
could use the approximation and say that the cost of
manufacturing the 1000th yard (or the 1001st) is
about $9.

104
Example 6(c) – Solution
cont’
d
The rate at which the production cost is increasing
(per yard) is probably lower when x = 500
than when x = 50 (the cost of making the 500th
yard is less than the cost of the 50th yard)
because of economies of scale. (The manufacturer
makes more efficient use of the fixed costs of
production.)
So
f (50) > f (500)
105
Example 6(c) – Solution
cont’
d
But, as production expands, the resulting large-
scale operation might become inefficient and there
might be overtime costs.
Thus it is possible that the rate of increase of costs
will eventually start to rise.
So it may happen that
f (5000) > f (500)

106
Class 7

The Derivative as a Function

107
The Derivative as a Function
We have considered the derivative of a function f at a fixed
number a:

Here we change our point of view and let the

number a vary. If we replace a in Equation 1 by a
variable x, we obtain

108
 The Derivative as a Function
Given any number x for which this limit exists, we assign
to x the number f ′(x). So we can regard f ′ as a new function,
called the derivative of f and defined by Equation 2.

We know that the value of f ′ at x, f ′(x), can be interpreted

geometrically as the slope of the tangent line to the graph
of f at the point (x, f (x)).

The function f ′ is called the derivative of f because it has

been “derived” from f by the limiting operation in Equation 2.
The domain of f ′ is the set {x | f ′(x) exists} and may be
smaller than the domain of f .
109
Example 1 – Derivative of a Function given by a Graph

The graph of a function f is given in Figure 1. Use it

to
sketch the graph of the derivative f ′.

Figure 1

110
Example 1 – Solution

We can estimate the value of the derivative at any value of

x by drawing the tangent at the point (x, f (x)) and
estimating its slope. For instance, for x = 5 we draw the
tangent at P in Figure 2(a) and estimate its slope to be
about , so f ′(5) ≈ 1.5.

Figure 2(a) 111

 Example 1 – Solution
cont’d
This allows us to plot the point P ′(5, 1.5) on the graph of f ′
directly beneath P. Repeating this procedure at
several points, we get the graph shown in Figure
2(b).

Figure 2(b)
112
 Example 1 – Solution
cont’d

Notice that the tangents at A, B, and C are horizontal, so

the derivative is 0 there and the graph of f ′ crosses the
x-axis at the points A′, B′, and C′, directly beneath A, B, and
C.

Between A and B the tangents have positive slope, so f ′(x)

is positive there. But between B and C the tangents have
negative slope, so f ′(x) is negative there.

113
Other Notations

114
 Other Notations
If we use the traditional notation y = f (x) to indicate that the
independent variable is x and the dependent variable is y,
then some common alternative notations for the derivative
are as follows:

The symbols D and d/dx are called differentiation

operators because they indicate the operation of
differentiation, which is the process of calculating a
derivative.
115
 Other Notations

The symbol dy/dx, which was introduced by Leibniz, should

not be regarded as a ratio (for the time being); it is simply a
synonym for f ′(x). Nonetheless, it is a very useful and
suggestive notation, especially when used in conjunction
with increment notation.

We can rewrite the definition of derivative in Leibniz

notation in the form

116
Other Notations
If we want to indicate the value of a derivative
dy/dx in Leibniz notation at a specific number a, we
use the notation

which is a synonym for f ′(a).

117
Example 5
Where is the function f (x) = | x | differentiable?

Solution:
If x > 0, then | x | = x and we can choose h small enough
that x + h > 0 and hence | x + h | = x + h.
Therefore, for x > 0, we have

and so f is differentiable for any x > 0.

118
Example 5 – Solution cont’d
Similarly, for x < 0 we have | x | = –x and h can be
chosen small enough that x + h < 0 and so | x + h | = –
(x + h).
Therefore, for x < 0,

and so f is differentiable for any x < 0.

119
Example 5 – Solution cont’d
For x = 0 we have to investigate

Let’s compute the left and right limits separately:

and

120
Example 5 – Solution cont’d
Since these limits are different, f ′(0) does not exist.
Thus f is differentiable at all x except 0.

A formula for f ′ is given by

and its graph is shown in Figure 5(b).

Figure 5(b)

121
Example 5 – Solution cont’d
The fact that f ′(0) does not exist is reflected
geometrically in the fact that the curve y = | x | does
not have a tangent line at (0, 0). [See Figure 5(a).]

Figure 5(a)

122
Other Notations
Both continuity and differentiability are desirable properties
for a function to have. The following theorem shows how
these properties are related.

The converse of Theorem 4 is false; that is, there are

functions that are continuous but not differentiable.

123
How Can a Function Fail to Be
Differentiable?

124
How Can a Function Fail to Be Differentiable?

We saw that the function y = | x | in Example 5 is not

differentiable at 0 and Figure 5(a) shows that its graph
changes direction abruptly when x = 0.

In general, if the graph of a

function f has a “corner” or “kink”
in it, then the graph of f has no
tangent at this point and f is not
differentiable there. [In trying to
compute f ′(a),Figure
we5(a)
find that
the left and right
limits are different.]
125
How Can a Function Fail to Be Differentiable?

Theorem 4 gives another way for a function not to

have a derivative. It says that if f is not continuous
at a, then f is not differentiable at a. So at any
discontinuity (for instance,
a jump discontinuity) f fails to be differentiable.

A third possibility is that the curve has a vertical

tangent line when x = a; that is, f is continuous at
a and

126
How Can a Function Fail to Be Differentiable?

This means that the tangent lines become steeper and

steeper as x a. Figure 6 shows one way that this can
happen; Figure 7(c) shows another.

Figure 6 Figure 7(c)

127
How Can a Function Fail to Be Differentiable?

Figure 7 illustrates the three possibilities that we have

discussed.

Three ways for f not to be differentiable at a

Figure 7

128
Higher Derivatives

129
Higher Derivatives
If f is a differentiable function, then its derivative f ′ is also a
function, so f ′ may have a derivative of its own, denoted by
(f ′)′ = f ′′. This new function f ′′ is called the second
derivative of f because it is the derivative of the derivative
of f .

Using Leibniz notation, we write the second derivative of

y = f (x) as

130
Example 6
If f (x) = x3 – x, find and interpret f ′′(x).

Solution:
The first derivative of f (x) = x3 – x is f ′(x) = 3x2 – 1.
So the second derivative is

131
Example 6 – Solution cont’d

The graphs of f, f ′, and f ′′ are shown in Figure 10.

Figure 10
132
Example 6 – Solution cont’d
We can interpret f ′′(x) as the slope of the curve y = f ′(x) at
the point (x, f ′(x)). In other words, it is the rate of change of
the slope of the original curve y = f (x).

Notice from Figure 10 that f ′′(x) is

negative when y = f ′(x) has negative
slope and positive when y = f ′(x)
has positive slope. So the graphs
Serve as a check on our calculations.

Figure 10

133
Higher Derivatives
In general, we can interpret a second derivative as a rate of
change of a rate of change. The most familiar example of
this is acceleration, which we define as follows.

If s = s (t) is the position function of an object that moves in

a straight line, we know that its first derivative represents
the velocity v(t) of the object as a function of time:

v(t) = s′(t) =

134
Higher Derivatives
The instantaneous rate of change of velocity with
respect to time is called the acceleration a(t) of
the object. Thus the acceleration function is the
derivative of the velocity function and is therefore
the second derivative of the position function:
a(t) = v ′(t) = s ′′(t)

or, in Leibniz notation,

135
Higher Derivatives
The third derivative f ′′′ is the derivative of the second
derivative: f ′′′ = (f ′′)′. So f ′′′(x) can be interpreted as the
slope of the curve y = f ′′(x) or as the rate of change of f ′′(x).

If y = f (x), then alternative notations for the third derivative

are

136
Higher Derivatives
The process can be continued. The fourth derivative f ′′′′ is
usually denoted by f (4).

In general, the nth derivative of f is denoted by f (n) and is

obtained from f by differentiating n times.

If y = f (x), we write

137
Higher Derivatives
We can also interpret the third derivative physically in the
case where the function is the position function s = s(t) of
an object that moves along a straight line.

Because s′′′ = (s′′)′ = a′, the third derivative of the position

function is the derivative of the acceleration function and is
called the jerk:

138
Higher Derivatives
Thus the jerk j is the rate of change of acceleration.

It is aptly named because a large jerk means a sudden

change in acceleration, which causes an abrupt movement
in a vehicle.

139
Basic Differentiation Formulas

140
Differentiation Formulas
Let’s start with the simplest of all functions, the
constant function f (x) = c. The graph of this function
is the horizontal line y = c, which has slope 0, so we
must have f (x) = 0.

See Figure 1.

The graph of f (x) = c is the line y = c, so f (x) =

0.
Figure 1
141
Differentiation Formulas
A formal proof, from the definition of a derivative, is
also easy:

In Leibniz notation, we write this rule as follows.

142
Power Functions

143
Power Functions
We next look at the functions f (x) = xn, where n is a
positive integer. If n = 1, the graph of f (x) = x is the
line y = x, which has slope 1.

(See Figure 2.)

The graph of f (x) = x is the line y = x, so f (x) = 1.

Figure 2

144
Power Functions
So

We have already investigated the cases n = 2 and

n = 3. In fact, we found that

(x2) = 2x (x3) = 3x2

145
Power Functions
For n = 4 we find the derivative of f (x) = x4 as
follows:

146
Power Functions
Thus
(x4) = 4x3

Comparing the equations in , , and , we see a

pattern emerging. It seems to be a reasonable guess
that, when n is a positive integer, (ddx)(xn) = nx n – 1.

This turns out to be true. We prove it in two ways;

the second proof uses the Binomial Theorem.
147
Example 1
(a) If f (x) = x6, then f (x) = 6x5.

(b) If y = x1000, then y = 1000x999.

(c) If y = t 4, then = 4t 3.

(d) (r3) = 3r2

148
Class 8

Mid Term Exam

149
Class 9
The Product and Quotient Rules;

150
New Derivatives from Old
When new functions are formed from old functions
by addition, subtraction, or multiplication by a
constant, their derivatives can be calculated in
terms of derivatives of the old functions.

In particular, the following formula says that the

derivative of a constant times a function is the
constant times the derivative of the function.

151
Example 2

(a) (3x4) = 3 (x4)

= 3(4x3)

= 12x3

(b) (–x) = [(–1)x]

= (–1) (x)

= –1(1)

= –1
152
New Derivatives from Old
The next rule tells us that the derivative of a sum of
functions is the sum of the derivatives.

The Sum Rule can be extended to the sum of any

number of functions. For instance, using this
theorem twice, we get
(f + g + h) = [(f + g) + h] = (f + g) + h = f  + g +
h
153
New Derivatives from Old
By writing f – g as f + (–1)g and applying the Sum
Rule and the Constant Multiple Rule, we get the
following formula.

The Constant Multiple Rule, the Sum Rule, and the

Difference Rule can be combined with the Power
Rule to differentiate any polynomial, as the
following examples demonstrate.
154
Example 3
(x8 + 12x5 – 4x4 + 10x3 – 6x + 5)

= (x8) + 12 (x5) – 4 (x4) + 10 (x3) – 6 (x) +

(5)

= 8x7 + 12(5x4) – 4(4x3) + 10(3x2) – 6(1) + 0

= 8x7 + 60x4 – 16x3 + 30x2 – 6

155
New Derivatives from Old
Next we need a formula for the derivative of a product of two functions.
By analogy with the Sum and Difference Rules, one might be tempted to
guess, as Leibniz did three centuries ago, that the derivative of a
product is the product of the derivatives.
We can see, however, that this guess is wrong by looking at a particular
example. Let f (x) = x and g (x) = x2. Then the Power Rule gives f (x) = 1
and g (x) = 2x. But (fg)(x) = x3, so
(fg)(x) = 3x2.

Thus (fg)  f g .

156
New Derivatives from Old
The correct formula was discovered by Leibniz and
is called the Product Rule.

In words, the Product Rule says that the derivative of a

product of two functions is the first function times the
derivative of the second function plus the second function
times the derivative of the first function.
157
Example 6
Find F(x) if F (x) = (6x3)(7x4).
Solution:
By the Product Rule, we have

F(x) =

= (6x3)(28x3) + (7x4)(18x2)

= 168x6 + 126x6

= 294x6 158
New Derivatives from Old

In words, the Quotient Rule says that the derivative

of a quotient is the denominator times the derivative
of the numerator minus the numerator times the
derivative of the denominator, all divided by the
square of the denominator.
159
Example 8

Let . Then

160
New Derivatives from Old
Note:
Don’t use the Quotient Rule every time you see a quotient.
Sometimes it’s easier to rewrite a quotient first to put it in a
form that is simpler for the purpose of differentiation.

For instance, although it is possible to differentiate the function

F(x) =

using the Quotient Rule.

161
New Derivatives from Old
It is much easier to perform the division first and
write the function as

F(x) = 3x + 2x –12

before differentiating.

162
General Power Functions

163
General Power Functions
The Quotient Rule can be used to extend the
Power Rule to the case where the exponent is a
negative integer.

164
Example 9
(a) If y = , then

= –x –2

(b)

165
General Power Functions

166
Example 11
Differentiate the function f (t) = (a + bt).
Solution 1:
Using the Product Rule, we have

167
Example 11 – Solution 2
cont’d

If we first use the laws of exponents to rewrite f (t),

then we can proceed directly without using the
Product Rule.

168
General Power Functions
The differentiation rules enable us to find tangent
lines without having to resort to the definition of a
derivative.
They also enable us to find normal lines.
The normal line to a curve C at point P is the line
through
P that is perpendicular to the tangent line at P.

169
Example 12
Find equations of the tangent line and normal line
to the curve
y= (1 + x2) at the point (1, ).
Solution:
According to the Quotient Rule, we have

170
Example 12 – Solution
cont’d

So the slope of the tangent line at (1, ) is

We use the point-slope form to write an equation of

the tangent line at (1, ):

y– = – (x – 1) or y=
171
Example 12 – Solution
cont’d

The slope of the normal line at (1, ) is the negative

reciprocal of , namely 4, so an equation is

y– = 4(x – 1) or y = 4x –

The curve and its tangent and normal lines are

graphed in Figure 5.

Figure 5
172
General Power Functions
We summarize the differentiation formulas we have
learned so far as follows.

Table of Differentiation Formulas

173
Trig functions

174
Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
In particular, it is important to remember that when we talk about the function f
defined for all real numbers x by

f (x) = sin x

it is understood that sin x means the sine of the angle whose radian measure is
x. A similar convention holds for the other trigonometric functions cos, tan, csc,
sec, and cot.

All of the trigonometric functions are continuous at every number in their

domains.

175
Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
If we sketch the graph of the function f (x) = sin x and use
the interpretation of f (x) as the slope of the tangent to the
sine curve in order to sketch the graph of f , then it looks as
if the graph of f  may be the same as the cosine curve.
(See Figure 1).

Figure 1
176
Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
Let’s try to confirm our guess that if f (x) = sin x, then
f (x) = cos x. From the definition of a derivative, we have

177
Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

Two of these four limits are easy to evaluate. Since

we regard x as a constant when computing a limit
as h  0, we have
and

178
Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
The limit of (sin h)/h is not so obvious. We made
the guess, on the basis of numerical and graphical
evidence, that

179
Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
We now use a geometric argument to prove Equation 2. Assume first
that  lies between 0 and  /2. Figure 2(a) shows a sector of a circle with
center O, central angle , and radius 1.

BC is drawn perpendicular to OA.

By the definition of radian measure,
we have arc AB = .
Also | BC | = | OB | sin  = sin .

Figure 2(a)

180
Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
From the diagram we see that

| BC | < | AB | < arc AB

Therefore sin  <  so <1

Let the tangent lines at A and B

intersect at E. You can see from
Figure 2(b) that the circumference
of a circle is smaller than the
length of a circumscribed polygon,
and so arc AB < | AE | + | EB |. Figure 2(b)

181
Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
Thus
 = arc AB < | AE | + | EB |
< | AE | + | ED |
= | AD | = | OA | tan 
= tan 

Therefore we have

so 182
Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
We know that lim 0 1 = 1 and lim 0 cos  = 1, so by the Squeeze
Theorem, we have

But the function (sin )/ is an even function, so its right and left limits
must be equal. Hence, we have

so we have proved Equation 2.

183
Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
We can deduce the value of the remaining limit in as follows:

(by Equation 2)
184
Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

If we now put the limits and in we get

185
Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
So we have proved the formula for the derivative of
the sine function:

186
Example 1
Differentiate y = x2 sin x.

Solution:
Using the Product Rule and Formula 4, we have

187
Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
Using the same methods as in the proof of Formula 4, one can prove
that

The tangent function can also be differentiated by using the definition of

a derivative, but it is easier to use the Quotient Rule together with
Formulas 4 and 5:

188
Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

189
Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

The derivatives of the remaining trigonometric

functions, csc, sec, and cot, can also be found
easily using the Quotient Rule.

190
Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
We collect all the differentiation formulas for
trigonometric functions in the following table.
Remember that they are valid only when x is
measured in radians.

191
Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
Trigonometric functions are often used in modeling
real-world phenomena. In particular,
vibrations, waves, elastic motions, and other
quantities that vary in a periodic manner can be
described using trigonometric functions. In the
following example we discuss an instance of simple
harmonic motion.

192
Example 3
An object at the end of a vertical spring is stretched
4 cm beyond its rest position and released at time t
= 0. (See Figure 5 and note that the downward
direction is positive.)
Its position at time t is

s = f (t) = 4 cos t

Find the velocity and acceleration

Figure 5
at time t and use them to analyze
the motion of the object.
193
Example 3 – Solution
The velocity and acceleration are

194
Example 3 – Solution
cont’d

The object oscillates from the lowest point (s = 4 cm) to the highest point
(s = –4 cm). The period of the oscillation is 2, the period of cos t.

195
Example 3 – Solution
cont’d
The speed is | v | = 4 | sin t |, which is greatest when | sin t | =
1, that is, when cos t = 0.

So the object moves fastest as it passes through its equilibrium position

(s = 0). Its speed is 0 when sin t = 0, that is, at the high and low points.

The acceleration a = –4 cos t = 0 when s =

0. It has greatest magnitude at the high
and low
points. See the graphs in Figure 6.

Figure 6
196
Class 10
The Chain Rule

197
The Chain Rule
Suppose you are asked to differentiate the function

The differentiation formulas you learned in the previous sections of this

chapter do not enable you to calculate F(x).

Observe that F is a composite function. In fact, if we let y = f (u) =

and let u = g(x) = x2 + 1, then we can write y = F (x) = f (g
(x)), that is, F = f  g.

We know how to differentiate both f and g, so it would be useful to have

a rule that tells us how to find the derivative of F = f  g in terms of the
derivatives of f and g.

198
The Chain Rule
It turns out that the derivative of the composite function f  g is the
product of the derivatives of f and g. This fact is one of the most
important of the differentiation rules and is called the Chain Rule.

It seems plausible if we interpret derivatives as rates of change. Regard

du /dx as the rate of change of u with respect to x, dy/du as the rate of
change of y with respect to u, and dy/dx as the rate of change of y with
respect to x. If u changes twice as fast as x and y changes three times
as fast as u, then it seems reasonable that y changes six times as fast
as x, and so we expect that

199
The Chain Rule

200
The Chain Rule
The Chain Rule can be written either in the prime notation

(f  g)(x) = f (g(x))  g(x)

or, if y = f (u) and u = g(x), in Leibniz notation:

Equation 3 is easy to remember because if dy/du and du/dx were

quotients, then we could cancel du.
Remember, however, that du has not been defined and du /dx should
not be thought of as an actual quotient.
201
Example 1
Find F '(x) if F (x) = .

Solution 1:
(Using Equation 2): We have expressed F as
F (x) = (f  g)(x) = f (g(x)) where f (u) = and g (x) = x2 + 1.

Since
and g(x) = 2x

we have F (x) = f (g (x))  g (x)

202
Example 1 – Solution
cont’d
(Using Equation 3): If we let u = x2 + 1 and y = ,
then

203
The Chain Rule
When using Formula 3 we should bear in mind that dy/dx refers to the
derivative of y when y is considered as a function of x (called the
derivative of y with respect to x), whereas dy /du refers to the derivative
of y when considered as a function of u (the derivative of y with respect
to u). For instance, in Example 1, y can be considered as a function of x
(y = ) and also as a function of u (y = ).

Note that

whereas

204
The Chain Rule
In general, if y = sin u, where u is a differentiable function of x, then, by
the Chain Rule,

Thus

In a similar fashion, all of the formulas for differentiating trigonometric

functions can be combined with the Chain Rule.

205
The Chain Rule
Let’s make explicit the special case of the Chain Rule where the outer
function f is a power function.

If y = [g (x)]n, then we can write y = f(u) = un where u = g (x). By using

the Chain Rule and then the Power Rule, we get

206
Example 3
Differentiate y = (x3 – 1)100.

Solution:
Taking u = g(x) = x3 – 1 and n = 100 in , we have

= (x3 – 1)100

= 100(x3 – 1)99 (x3 – 1)

= 100(x3 – 1)99  3x2

= 300x2(x3 – 1)99 207

How to Prove the Chain Rule

208
How to Prove the Chain Rule
Recall that if y = f(x) and x changes from a to a + x, we defined the
increment of y as

y = f (a + x) – f (a)

According to the definition of a derivative, we have

So if we denote by ε the difference between the difference quotient and

the derivative, we obtain

= f '(a) – f '(a) = 0
209
How to Prove the Chain Rule
But

y = f (a) x + ε x

If we define ε to be 0 when x = 0, then ε becomes a continuous

function of x. Thus, for a differentiable function f, we can write

y = f (a) x + ε x where ε  0 as x  0

and ε is a continuous function of x. This property of differentiable

functions is what enables us to prove the Chain Rule.

210
Related Rates

211
Class 11
Implicit Differentiation

212
Linear Approximations and Differentials

213
Class 12
Exponential Functions

214
Inverse Functions and Logarithms

215
Class 13
Derivatives of Logarithmic and
Exponential Functions

216
Exponential Growth and Decay

217
Class 15
Exponential Growth and Decay (Cont.)

218
Inverse Trigonometric Functions

219
Class 16
Hyperbolic Functions

220
Indeterminate Forms

221
Class 17
L'Hospital's Rule

222
Maximum and Minimum Values

223
Class 18
Maximum and Minimum Values (Cont.)

224
The Mean Value Theorem

225
Class 19

Derivatives and the Shapes of Graphs;

Concavity

226
Curve Sketching

227
Class 20
Curve Sketching (Cont.)

228
Optimization Problems

229
Class 21
Newton's Method

230
Antiderivatives

231
Class 23

Integrals:
Areas and Distances

232
The Definite Integral

233
Class 24
Integrals: Evaluating Definite Integrals

234
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

235
The Substitution Rule

236
Class 25

Wrap-Up

237
Review for Final

238