DC Machines

 Generators
 Motors
 Transformers
Presented By
1. Khushbu Singh
2. Jagrati Sharma
3. Vandan Patel
4. Aman Kalyankar
5. Jatin Jangir
DC Generator and Motor

converts mechanical
energy into electrical
energy.

converts electrical
energy into mechanical
energy.
 D.C. GENERATORS PRINCIPLE OF
OPERATION

 When a conductor move in a magnetic field in such a way

conductors cuts across a magnetic flux of lines and e.m.f.
produces in a generator and it is defined by faradays law of
electromagnetic induction e.m.f. causes current to flow if
the conductor circuit is closed.
 D.C. MOTORS PRINCIPLE OF
OPERATION

 When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic

field , it experiences a force that causes a motion , defined
by electromagnetic principles , converting electrical energy
into magnetic energy .
 FARADAYS LAW OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTION

Basis for electromagnetic

induction in both machines.
First Law :
Whenever the magnetic flux linkedwith a
circuit changes, an e.m.f. is always induced in
it.
or
Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, an e.m.f. is
induced in that conductor.
Second Law :
The magnitude of the induced e.m.f. is equal to
the rate of change of flux linkages.
Lenz’s Law

- It states that the direction of the

induced EMF and resulting current in
a conductor opposes the change in
magnetic flux that caused it.

- It's fundamental in understanding

the operation of both DC motors and
generators.
Fleming's Right Hand Rule for
Generators
helps determine the direction of
induced current when a conductor
moves in a magnetic field.
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule
for Motors
helps predict the direction of force
exerted on a current-carrying
conductor in a magnetic field.
 Important Formulae
• DC Generator:
• Generated EMF (Eg) = ϕZNP /
60A
• Armature Current (IL) = IF/sh +
•Eg​: Generated electromotive
IA (series), force
Ia = IL (shunt)
(EMF) in volts.
•ϕ: Magnetic flux per pole (Webers).
•Z: Total number of armature
conductors.
•N: Speed of the armature in revolutions
per minute (RPM).
•P: Number of poles in the machine.
•A: Number of parallel paths in the
armature.

•IF = Field current

•IL = Load current
•Ia = Armature current
 Important Formulae

• DC Motor:
• Back EMF (Eb) = V - IaRa
• Speed (N) ∝ Eb / ϕ

• ϕ: Magnetic flux
per pole
(Webers).
• Ra​: Armature
resistance (in
ohms).
• Eb​: Back
electromotive
force (EMF).
Eb ​∝ ϕ ⋅ N
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 Generators

D.C A.C
Generators Generators
(Alternators
)
Clasifications of
Generators
Separately Excited
Generators

G VL

Ia=IL
E=Vt+ IaRa +BCD
SELF EXCITED GENERATOR
shunt
wound
L

VL
G
 series
wound

VL
G
Long short shunt
 Armature Reaction and Commutation

 The effect of magnetic field set up by armature

current on the distribution of flux under main poles
of a generator. Leads to uneven Voltage generation
and poor performance

 It is the process of converting A.C generated voltage

in the armature conductors to D.C for external load.
 Applications of D.C
Generators
Separately excited generators

i) These are used for speed control of D.C motors over a large range.
ii) These are used in areas where a wide range of terminal voltage is required

Self excited generators

i) shunt generators :-
i) These are used as exciters for exciting the field of synchronous machines and separately
excited D.C generators
ii) These are used for battery charging because it’s terminal voltage are almost constant or
can be kept constant.
iii) Commonly used in ordinary lighting purposes and power supply purposes.
 ii) series generators:-
i) These are used for series arc lighting
ii) Series incandescent lighting
iii) As a series booster for increasing the voltage across the feeder to compensate
the resistance drop of the line. because of their rising characteristic.
iv) Special purposes such as supplying the field current for regenerative
breaking of D.C locomotives (railway service).
v) Constant current for welding.

iii) compound generators:-

i) Compound generators are used where constant terminal voltages have to be
maintained for different loading conditions.
ii) Cumulatively compound generators:-These are for domestic
lighting purposes and to transmit energy over long distance and for heavy power
service such as electric railways.
iii) Differential compound generator:- The use of this type of generators is
very rare and it is used for special application like arc welding.
 UNIT-5
Transformers
Transformer is a static device which transfers the electrical energy from one circuit to another circuit,
without changing its frequency. The voltage can be raised or lowered in a circuit, but with a proportional
increase or decrease in the current ratings.

Construction of a Transformer:

Basically a transformer consists of two inductive windings and a laminated steel core.
Windings:
There are two windings in a transformer. Which winding is connected to supply is called primary winding
and which winding is connected to load is called secondary winding. Windings are made up of copper. The
windings are insulated from each other as well as from the steel core.
Iron Core:
In all types of transformers, core is constructed by assembling laminated sheets of steel, with
minimum air-gap between them (to achieve continuous magnetic path). The steel used is having high
silicon content and sometimes heat treated, to provide high permeability and low hysteresis loss.
Laminated sheets of steel are used to reduce eddy current loss. The sheets are cut in the shape as E,I, C and
L.

Shapes of steel sheets

Working principle of a Transformer:

The main principle of operation of a transformer is mutual inductance between two circuits which is linked
by a common magnetic flux. A basic transformer consists of two coils that are electrically separate and
inductive, but are magnetically linked through a path of reluctance.

Dr. Narendra Babu P, Assistant Professor

SEEE, VIT Bhopal University
 DC Machines and Transformers

When the supply is given to the primary winding then an alternating flux produced due to
alternating current. This flux is linked to the secondary winding through the magnetic core. An emf
will be induced in the secondary winding from the principle of faradays law of electromagnetic
induction. This emf is caused to flow current when the circuit is in closed path.

A transformer carries the operations shown below:

1. Transfer of electric power from one circuit to another.

2. Transfer of electric power without any change in frequency.
3. Transfer with the principle of electromagnetic induction.
4. The two electrical circuits are linked by mutual induction
E.M.F Equation of a Transformer:

Let,

N1 = Number of turns in the primary winding N2 =

Number of turns in the secondary winding

ϕm = Maximum flux in the core in webers = Bmax * A

f = Frequency of alternating current input in
hertz (Hz)
The general equation for induced EMF, e is expressed
as
d
e  N
dt
A sinusoidal varying flux is represented as
Φ= ϕm sinwt

Then,
 DC Machines and Transformers

e  N
d(m sint)
dt

e= -Nϕmcost

e= -N ϕm [-sin(t-π/2)]

e= N ϕmsin(t-900)

This equation of e, is of the form e= Em sin (t-90)

Em  N

Em  N 2f

The RMS voltage is 1/sqrt(2) times its maximum

value. Erms  E m  N 2f  N 2  3.14
f
E
2 4.44m 2fN Volts1.414

Now, r.m.s value of induced e.m.f in the whole of primary winding= (induced e.m.f./turn) X
Number of primary turns
Therefore,

E1 = 4.44f N1ϕm = 4.44fN1BmA

Similarly, r.m.s value of induced e.m.f in secondary is

E2 = 4.44f N2 ϕm = 4.44fN2BmA

In an ideal transformer on no load,

V1 = E1 and V2 = E2

Voltage Transformation Ratio (K):

N2 V E I
It is defined as the ratio of secondary voltage
K  tothe2 primary voltage.
2
 1
N1  V1 E1 I2

K is called the ratio of voltage transformation.

(1)
If N2>N1 , that is K>1 , then transformer is called step-up transformer.
(2)
If N2<N1, that is K<1, then transformer is known as step-down transformer.
Again for an ideal transformer,

Input VA = output VA
V 1 I1 = V 2 I2

I2/I1 = V1/V2 = 1/K

Hence, currents are in the inverse ratio of the (voltage)

transformation ratio.

Dr. Narendra Babu P, Assistant Professor

SEEE, VIT Bhopal University
 DC Machines and Transformers

Types of Transformers:
1. Based on construction, transformers can be classified into two types as;
(i) Core type transformer
(ii) Shell type transformer

Core type and Shell type transformers

(i) Core Type Transformer
In core type transformer, windings are cylindrical former wound, mounted on the core
limbs. The cylindrical coils have different layers and each layer is insulated from each other.
Materials like paper, cloth or mica can be used for insulation. Low voltage windings are placed
nearer to the core, as they are easier to insulate.
(ii) Shell Type Transformer
The coils are former wound and mounted in layers stacked with insulation between them. A
shell type transformer may have simple rectangular.
2. Based on the voltage level
1. Step up transformer: Voltage increases (with subsequent decrease in current) at
secondary.
2. Step down transformer: Voltage decreases (with subsequent increase in current) at
secondary.

Step-up Transformer Step-Down Transformer

3. Based on the power supply there are two types
1. Single phase (1-ϕ) transformer
2. Three phase (3-ϕ) transformer

Dr. Narendra Babu P, Assistant Professor

SEEE, VIT Bhopal University
 DC Machines and Transformers

Single phase transformer three phase transformer

Applications of a transformer:

Transformers are used in most electronic circuits. A transformer has only 3 applications;
1. To step up voltage and current.
2. To Step down voltage and current
3. To prevent DC – transformers can pass only Alternating Currents so they totally prevent
DC from passing to the next circuit.
4. Mobile adapters, substations, TV’s, Computers etc...
Losses in a Transformer:
An electrical transformer is a static device, hence mechanical losses (like windage or friction
losses) are absent in it. A transformer only consists of electrical losses (iron losses and copper
losses). Transformer losses are similar to losses in a DC machine, except that transformers do not
have mechanical losses.
(i) Core Losses or Iron Losses or Constant losses
Eddy current loss and hysteresis loss depend upon the magnetic properties of the material used for
the construction of core. Hence these losses are also known as core losses or iron losses.
 Hysteresis loss in transformer:
 Eddy current loss in transformer
 Copper Losses or I2R losses or Variable losses
 DC Machines and Transformers

Efficiency of a Transformer:
Efficiency of a transformer can be defined as the ration of output power to the input power.
Efficiency = output / input
Transformers are the most highly efficient electrical devices. Most of the transformers have full
load efficiency between 95% to 98.5%.
Efficiency = (input - losses) / input = 1 - (losses / input).
Condition for Maximum Efficiency:
Let,

Copper loss = I12R1

Iron loss = Wi

I1 2 R 1 = Wi
Hence, efficiency of a transformer will be maximum when copper loss and iron losses are equal.
Copper loss = Iron loss
 DC Machines and Transformers

Difference between Ideal and Practical Transformer:

Ideal Transformer Practical Transformer

It has 100% efficiency. It has less than 100% efficiency.
It has no losses. It has losses.
It has no I2R losses. It has I2R losses.
It has no iron loss. It has iron loss.
There is no ohmic resistance drop. There is ohmic resistance drop.
It has no leakage drop. It has leakage drop.
In it ideal condition. In it practical condition.

Voltage Regulation of a Transformer

Definition: The voltage regulation is defined as the change in the magnitude of receiving and
sending voltage of the transformer. The voltage regulation determines the ability of the transformer
to provide the constant voltage for variable loads.
When the transformer is loaded with continuous supply voltage, the terminal voltage of the
transformer varies. The variation of voltage depends on the load and its power factor.
Mathematically, the voltage regulation is represented as:

where,
E2 – secondary terminal voltage at no load V2 –
secondary terminal voltage at full load
 Triple Phase Transformer

Applications :
• Power Generation
• Transportation Systems
• Industrial Applications

Pros Cons
• More Efficient • More complex to contr
• • Expensive repairing
Smaller and lighter
• Cheaper • Damage in a phase
• easy to install causes entire unit to
shut down
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