International University

School of Electrical Engineering

Electronics Devices
Lecture # 4_Part 1
Excess Carriers & P-N Junction

Textbook: Microelectronic Circuit Design, A.S.Sedra &

K.C. Smith, 6th ed., Oxford University Press.
Semiconductor Fundamentals
Semiconductor Fundamentals
Silicon and Germanium
Why Silicon?
 Silicon
A silicon atom has four valence electrons, and thus it requires another four to
complete its outermost shell. This is achieved by sharing one of its valence
electrons with each of its four neighboring atoms. Each pair of shared electrons
forms a covalent bond. The result is that a crystal of pure or intrinsic silicon has
a regular lattice structure, where the atoms are held in their position by the
covalent bonds.
At sufficiently low temperatures,
approaching absolute zero (0 K),
all the covalent bonds are intact
and no electrons are available to
conduct electric current. Thus, at
such low temperatures, the
intrinsic silicon crystal behaves
as an insulator.
 Silicon
At room temperature, sufficient thermal energy exists to break some of the
covalent bonds, a process known as thermal generation. As shown in Figure,
when a covalent bond is broken, an electron is freed.
 Silicon
Thermal generation results in free electrons and holes in equal numbers and hence
equal concentrations, where concentration refers to the number of charge carriers
per unit volume (cm3). The free electrons and holes move randomly through the
silicon crystal structure, and in the process some electrons may fill some of the
holes. This process, called recombination, results in the disappearance of free
electrons and holes
In thermal equilibrium, the recombination rate is equal to the generation rate, and one
can conclude that the concentration of free electrons n is equal to the concentration
of holes p

where ni denotes the number of free electrons and holes in a unit volume (cm3) of
intrinsic silicon at a given temperature

where B is a material-dependent parameter that is for silicon;

E , a parameter known as the bandgap energy, is 1.12 electron volt (eV) for silicon;
g

and k is Boltzmann’s constant (6.82x10-5 eV/K). It is interesting to know that the

bandgap energy E is the minimum energy required to break a covalent bond and
g

thus generate an electron hole pair.

Example
 Doped Semiconductors
The intrinsic silicon crystal has equal concentrations of free electrons and holes,
generated by thermal generation. These concentrations are far too small for silicon to
conduct appreciable current at room temperature. Fortunately, a method was
developed to change the carrier concentration in a semiconductor crystal substantially
and in a precisely controlled manner. This process is known as doping, and the
resulting silicon is referred to as doped silicon.

To increase the concentration of free electrons, n, silicon is doped with an element

with a valence of 5, such as phosphorus. The resulting doped silicon is then said to
be of n type. To increase the concentration of holes, p, silicon is doped with an
element having a valence of 3, such as Boron, and the resulting doped silicon is said
to be of p type
 Doped Semiconductors: n-type semiconductor
The dopant (phosphorus) atoms replace some of the silicon atoms in the crystal
structure. Since the phosphorus atom has five electrons in its outer shell, four of these
electrons form covalent bonds with the neighboring atoms, and the fifth electron becomes a
free electron.
 Doped Semiconductors: p-type semiconductor
To obtain p-type silicon in which holes are the majority charge carriers, a trivalent
impurity such as “Boron” is used.
 Current Flow in Semiconductors

There are two distinctly different mechanisms for the movement of charge carriers
and hence for current flow in semiconductors: drift and diffusion
 Drift Current

When an electrical field E is established in

a semiconductor crystal, holes are
accelerated in the direction of E, and free
electrons are accelerated in the direction
opposite to that of E.
The holes acquire a velocity v given by
p-drift

where μp is a constant called the hole mobility: It represents the degree of ease
by which holes move through the silicon crystal in response to the electrical field
E. The mobility μp must have the units of centimeters squared per volt-second
(cm2/V.s). For intrinsic silicon μp =480cm2/V . s.
 Drift Current
The free electrons acquire a drift velocity given by

where the result is negative because the electrons move in the direction opposite
to E. Here μn is the electron mobility, which for intrinsic silicon is about 1350
cm2\V.s. Note that is about 2.5 times μp, signifying that electrons move with much
greater ease through the silicon crystal than do holes.
 Drift Current
Consider a plane perpendicular to the x direction. In one second, the hole charge
that crosses that plane will be (Aqpv ) coulombs, where A is the cross-sectional
p-drift

area of the silicon bar and q is the magnitude of electron charge. This then must be
the hole component of the drift current flowing through the bar,

We are usually interested in the current density J , which is the current per unit
p

cross section area

 Drift Current
The current component due to the drift of free electrons can be found in a similar
manner

The total drift current density can now be found by summing Jp and Jn

This relationship can be written as

or

where the conductivity is given by

and the resistivity is given by

 Diffusion Current
Diffusion:
-Electrons or holes will diffuse from the region of high concentration to the region
of low concentration
- This diffusion process gives rise to net flow of charge or diffusion current

The magnitude of the current at any point is proportional to the slope of the
concentration profile, or the concentration gradient, at that point,
Diffusion Current
 In the case of electron diffusion resulting from an electron concentration gradient, a
similar relationship applies, giving the electron-current density:

where Dn is the diffusion constant or diffusivity of electrons. Observe that a negative

(dn/dx) gives rise to a negative current, a result of the convention that the positive
direction of current is taken to be that of the flow of positive charge (and opposite to
that of the flow of negative charge). For holes and electrons diffusing in intrinsic
silicon, typical values for the diffusion constants are D = 12 cm2/s and D = 35 cm2/s.
p n
 Relationship between D and μ
A simple but powerful relationship ties the diffusion constant with the mobility

where VT=kT/q. The parameter VT is known as the thermal voltage. At room

temperature, T=300K and VT=25.9mV. We will encounter VT repeatedly
throughout this book. The relationship is known as the Einstein relationship
 pn Junction with Open-Circuit Terminals
It consists of p-type semiconductor (e.g., silicon) brought into close contact with
an n-type semiconductor material (also silicon). In actual practice, both the p and
n regions are part of the same silicon crystal; that is, the pn junction is formed
within a single silicon crystal by creating regions of different dopings (p and n
regions).
If the pn junction is used as a diode, these constitute the diode terminals and are therefore
labeled “anode” and “cathode” in keeping with diode terminology
 Operation with Open-Circuit Terminals
ID: Diffusion current from high to
low concentration
Depletion region: charges that
diffuse across the junction into
another region quickly recombine
with some majority charges
present there and thus disappear
from the scene. Thus some of the
bound positive/negative charges
will no longer be neutralized.
The drift current IS and equilibrium:
Under open-circuit conditions no
some of the thermally generated
external current exists; thus the two
holes in the n material diffuse
opposite current equal in amplitude ID =
through the n material to the edge
IS
of the depletion region. There the
This equilibrium condition is maintained electric field in the depletion
by the barrier voltage Vo (0.6 – 0.8v) region, which sweeps them across
that region in to p side. Similarly
 The PN Junction Under Reverse-bias Conditions

It is more easily explained if we consider exciting the junction with a constant-current source
(rather than with voltage source). The current source I is obviously in the reverse direction
and less than Is (otherwise breakdown occurs)
The current I will be carried by electron flowing in the external circuit from the n material to
the p material. This will cause electrons to leave the n material and holes to leave the p
material.
Thus the reverse current I will result in an increase in the width of, and the charge stored in,
the depletion layer. This, in turn, will result in a higher voltage across the depletion region-
that is, a greater barrier voltage-which causes the diffusion current I D to decrease. The drift
current IS will remain constant. Finally, equilibrium (steady state) will reached when IS – ID = I
 The PN Junction In The Breakdown Region
In the previous section, it was assumed that the reverse-
current source I is smaller than Is or, equivalently, the
reverse voltage VR is smaller than the breakdown voltage
VZK.
Let the pn junction be excited by a current source that causes
a const. current I greater than Is to flow in the reverse
direction. Holes move from p through external circuit to n
material. This action results in more and more of the bound
charge being uncovered; hence the depletion layer widens
and the barrier voltage rises. This latter effect causes the
diffusion current to decrease . Nevertheless, this is not
sufficient to reach a steady state, since I > Is
Therefore the process leading to the widening of the
depletion layer continues until a sufficiently high junction
voltage develops, at which point a new mechanism sets in to
supply the charges carriers needed to support the current I.
There are two effects: zener effect (Vz < 5V): large electric
field can break covalent bonds; and avalanche effect (Vz >
7V): minority carrier with sufficient kinetic energy to be
able to break covalent bonds
 The PN Junction Under Forward-bias Conditions

It is easier to explain physical operation if we excite the junction by a const.

current source supplying a current I in the forward direction.
This causes majority carriers to be supplied to both sides of the junction by the
external circuit: holes to p material and electrons to the n material. These majority
carriers will neutralize some of the uncovered bond charges, causing less charge to
be stored in the depletion layer.
Thus the depletion layer narrows and the depletion barrier voltage reduces. Thus
the diffusion current ID increases until equilibrium is achieved with ID – Is = I, the
externally supplied forward current.
Question

a) Which of the following is a common application for Breakdown region of

junction diode.
• Demodulation.
• AC rectification.
• Voltage regulation.
• Input protection.

a) The forward voltage drop across a silicon diode is about….

2.5 V
3V
10 V
0.7 V
 Useful links
https://youtu.be/aJ23Owvgdyc?t=601
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BHA4teZmwT0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TFgWDcBp-uY