Development of Motivation and

Self-Regulation, Moral
Development Theories
By: Althea Talla & Krystle Argel
Objectives:
• Explain how motivation and self-regulation develop and
their theorethical underpinnings.
• Explain moral development and their theoretical
underpinnings.
Development of Motivation and Self-Regulation
• Motivation and self-regulation are essential skills that
support personal growth, achievement, and success.
• These skills are crucial for mastering tasks, managing
emotions, and maintaining focus and persistence in the
face of challenges.
• It started from early childhood and continues to develop
throughout life, with different strategies being effective at
different stages of development.
Development of Motivation and Self-regulation
• In early childhood, caregivers provide supportive and
nurturing environment that encourages exploration and
independence.
• As children grow older, they begin to develop better
understanding of their own emotions, strenghts, and
weaknesses. (Self-awareness)
• During adolescence, young people start to develop sense
of identity and autonomy.
Development of Motivation and Self-regulation
• In adulthood, motivation and self-regulation are important
in personal and professional success.
• Adult can enhance their motivation and self-regulation by
setting goals, breaking tasks into manageable steps, and
using strategies like self-monitoring, self-reinforcement,
and self-talk to stay focused and motivated.
Content Theories of Motivation
• These are subsets of motivational theories that attempt to
explain what motivates people.
a.) Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow)
b.) ERG Theory (Alderfer)
c.) Theory of Needs (McClelland)
d.) Two Factor Theory (Herzberg)
A. Hierarchy of Needs by Maslow
• Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory in
psychology comprising a five-tier modelof human needs,
often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid.
From the bottom of the hierarchy upwards, the needs are:
physiological (food and clothing), safety (job security),
love and belonging needs (friendship), esteem, and self-
actualization. Needs lower down in the hierarchy must be
satisfied before individuals can attend to needs higher up.
A. Hierarchy of Needs by Maslow
Maslow (1943, 1954)
stated that people are
motivated to achieve
certain needs and that
someneeds take
precedence over others.
A. Hierarchy of Needs by Maslow

1.) Physiological needs- these are biological requirements

for human survival, e.g., air,food, drink, shelter, clothing,
warmth, sex, sleep.
2.) Safety needs- once an individual’s physiological needs
are satisfied, the needs for security and safety become
salient. People want to experience order, predictability and
control in their lives. These needs can be fulfilled by the
family and society (e.g., police, schools, business and
medical care).
A. Hierarchy of Needs by Maslow

3.) Love and belongingness needs- after physiological and

safety needs have been fulfilled, the third level of human
needs is social and involves feelings of belongingness.
Belongingness refers to a human emotional need for
interpersonalrelationships, affiliating, connectedness, and
being part of a group.
A. Hierarchy of Needs by Maslow

4.) Esteem needs- are the fourth level in Maslow’s hierarchy

and include self-worth, accomplishment and respect.
Maslow classified esteem needs into two categories:(i)
esteem for oneself (dignity, achievement, mastery,
independence) and(ii) the desire for reputation or respect
from others (e.g., status, prestige).
A. Hierarchy of Needs by Maslow

5.) Self-actualization needs- are the highest level in

Maslow's hierarchy, and refer to the realization of a person's
potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak
experiences. Maslow (1943) describes this level as the
desire to accomplish everything that one can, to become
the most that one can be.
B. The ERG Theory by Alderfer

In this model the letter E, R, & G each stand for a

different human need: existence, relatedness and growth.
The ERG model is a content theory of motivation. Alderfer’s
model says that all humans are motivated by these three
needs.
B. The ERG Theory by Alderfer
B. The ERG Theory by Alderfer
• The most concrete and motivating of Alderfer’s three
needs is existence, which really relates to physical and
psychological survival.
• The next level is the need for relatedness, a sense of
community and a good relationship with yourself.
• The least concrete, but still important, of Alderfer’s needs
in the ERG model is growth, which really relates to self-
development, fulfillment and the senseof achieving your
potential.
B. The ERG Theory by Alderfer

Alderfer’s ERG Theory of Motivation states that

individuals can be motivated by multiple levels of need at
the same time, and that the level which is most important to
them can change over time. In other words, an individual’s
priorities and motivations may be fluid and can move
between the existence, relatedness and growth levels of
need over time. They can move upwards, and they can
move downwards.
C. The Theory of Needs by McClelland

David McClelland built on this work in his 1961 book,"The

Achieving Society." He identified three motivators that he
believed we all have: a need for achievement, a need for
affiliation, and a need for power. People will have different
characteristics depending on their dominant motivator.
C. The Theory of Needs by McClelland
• According to McClelland, these motivators are learned
(which is why this theory issometimes called the Learned
Needs Theory).
• McClelland says that, regardless of our gender, culture, or
age, we all have three motivating drivers, and one of
these will be our dominant motivating driver. This
dominant motivator is largely dependent on our culture
and life experiences
C. The Theory of Needs by McClelland
Dominant Characteristics of This Person
Motivator

Achievement • Has a strong need to set and accomplish challenging goals.

• Takes calculated risks to accomplish their goals.
• Likes to receive regular feedback on their progress and achievements.
• Often likes to work alone.

• Wants to belong to a group.

Affiliation
• Wants to be liked and will often go along with whatever the rest of the group
wants to do.
• Favors collaboration over competition.
• Doen’t like high risks or uncertainty.
• Wants to control and influence others.
Power • Likes to win arguments.
• Enjoys competitions and winnings.
• Enjoys status and recognition.
D. Two Factors Theory by Herzberg

Herzberg’s Theory of Motivation tries to get to the root of

motivation in the workplace. You can leverage this theory to
help you get the best performance from your team.
The two factors identified by Herzberg are motivators and
hygiene factors.
1. Motivating Factors
-The presence of motivators causes employees to work
harder.They are found within the actual job itself.
D. Two Factors Theory by Herzberg
• 2. Hygiene Factors
– The absence of hygiene factors will cause employees to work
less hard.Hygiene factors are not present in the actual job itself
but surround the job. The impact ofmotivating and hygiene
factors is summarized in the following diagram. Note that you
willoften see motivators referred to as factors for satisfaction,
and hygiene factors referred toas factors for dissatisfaction
D. Two Factors Theory by Herzberg
D. Two Factors Theory by Herzberg
• Motivating factors include:
Achievement: A job must give an employee a sense of achievement.
This will providea proud feeling of having done something difficult but
worthwhile.
Recognition: A job must provide an employee with praise and
recognition of theirsuccesses. This recognition should come from both
their superiors and their peers.
The work itself: The job itself must be interesting, varied, and provide
enough of achallenge to keep employees motivated.
D. Two Factors Theory by Herzberg
• Motivating factors include:
Responsibility: Employees should “own” their work. They should
hold themselvesresponsible for this completion and not feel as
though they are being micromanaged.
Advancement: Promotion opportunities should exist for the
employee.
Growth: The job should give employees the opportunity to
learn new skills. This canhappen either on the job or through
more formal training
D. Two Factors Theory by Herzberg
• Hygiene factors include:
Company policies: These should be fair and clear to every
employee. They must also be equivalent to those of
competitors. Supervision: Supervision must be fair and
appropriate. The employee should be givenas much autonomy as
is reasonable.
Relationships: There should be no tolerance for bullying or
cliques. A healthy, amiable,and appropriate relationship should
exist between peers, superiors, and subordinates.
Work conditions: Equipment and the working environment
should be safe, fit for purpose, and hygienic.
• Hygiene factors include:
Salary: The pay structure should be fair and reasonable. It
should also be competitivewith other organizations in the same
industry.
Status: The organization should maintain the status of all
employees within theorganization. Performing meaningful work
can provide a sense of status.
Security: It is important that employees feel that their job is
secure, and they are notunder the constant threat of being laid-
off.
Process Theories of Motivation

This focuses on the mechanisms by which we choose

targets and the effort we exert to achieve them. There are
four major process theories:
a.) Reinforcement Theory (Skinner)
b.) Expectancy Theory (Vroom)
c.) Goal Setting Theory (Locke)
d.) Self-determination Theory (Deci and Ryan)
A. Reinforcement Theory by Skinner

Reinforcement theory was first recognized in the work of

psychologist Ivan Pavlov(behavioral conditioning) and B. F.
Skinner (operant conditioning). Reinforcement theory says
that behavior is driven by its consequences. As such,
positive behaviors should be rewarded positively.
Negative behaviors should not be rewarded or should be
punished. The difficulty inemploying this theory is that it is
not always easy to determine what types of behavior should
be rewarded.
A. Reinforcement Theory by Skinner
A. Reinforcement Theory by Skinner

Behavior Reinforcement theory provides four interventions

that can be used to modify employee behavior.
a. Positive Reinforcement - Used to increase desired behavior.
It consists of makingcertain that positive behaviors are reinforced
with positive rewards.
b. Negative reinforcement - Used to increase the desired
behavior. This involves placing negative consequences on failure
to perform the desired behavior. If thedesired behavior is
performed, the negative consequences are removed.
A. Reinforcement Theory by Skinner
c. Extinction - Used to reduce undesirable behavior. This
involves not providing anyform of reinforcement for a behavior.
The result is that the employee stops doingthe unnecessary or
undesired behavior.
d. Punishment - Used to reduce undesirable behavior. This
method uses negativeconsequences if an undesirable behavior
occurs.
A. Reinforcement Theory by Skinner

Further, this theory calls for Reinforcement Schedules.

This entails designing the time and schedule of reinforcements as it
has been shown to affect behavior.
Reinforcement schedules might be:
Continuous - The continuously follow the designated behavior.
Fixed ratio schedules - This means providing the intervention after the
attached behavioris presented a certain number of times.
Fixed interval schedules - This means providing the intervention after
a fixed period oftime.
Variable Ratio Schedules - This means providing the intervention in a
random pattern.
A. Reinforcement Theory by Skinner
Organizational Behavior Modification Organizational Behavior
Modification (or OB Mod) is the systematic application of
reinforcement theory principles.
This model follows the following five steps or stages:
a. Identify the behavior to be modified.
b. Develop a baseline measurement of the undesired behavior.
c. Identify the antecedent (causes/motivations) for the behavior and
theconsequences (what is the result of the behavior.
d. Implement the associated Intervention.
e. Periodically measure the behavior to determine the extent of
modification.
B. Expectancy Theory by Vroom
The expectancy theory was proposed by Victor Vroom of Yale
School of Managementin 1964. Vroom stresses and focuses on
outcomes, and not on needs unlike Maslow and Herzberg.
The theory states that the intensity of a tendency to perform in
a particular manner is dependent on the intensity of an
expectation that the performance will be followed by a definite
outcome and on the appeal of the outcome to the individual.
B. Expectancy Theory by Vroom
The Expectancy theory states that employee’s motivation is an
outcome of how much an individual wants a reward (Valence),
the assessment that the likelihood that the effort will lead to
expected performance (Expectancy) and the belief that the
performance will lead to reward(Instrumentality).
In short, valence is the expected outcome, expectancy is the
faith that better efforts will result in better performance, and
instrumentality is the faith that if you perform well, then a valid
outcome will be there.
B. Expectancy Theory by Vroom
B. Expectancy Theory by Vroom
Thus, the expectancy theory concentrates onthe following
three relationships:
Effort-performance relationship: What is the likelihood that the
individual’s effort be recognized in his performance appraisal?
Performance-reward relationship: It talks about the extent to which
the employee believes that getting a good performance appraisal leads
to organizational rewards.
Rewards-personal goals relationship: It is all about the attractiveness
or appeal of the potential reward to the individual.
B. Expectancy Theory by Vroom

Advantages of the Expectancy Theory:

– It is based on self-interest individual who want to achieve
maximumsatisfactionand who wants to minimize dissatisfaction.
– This theory stresses upon the expectations and perception;
what is real and actual isimmaterial.
– It emphasizes on rewards or pay-offs.
– It focuses on psychological extravagance where final objective
of individual is toattain maximum pleasure and least pain.
B. Expectancy Theory by Vroom

Limitations of the Expectancy Theory:

– The expectancy theory seems to be idealistic because quite a
few individuals perceive high degree correlation between
performance and rewards.
– The application of this theory is limited as reward is not directly
correlated with performance in many organizations. It is related
to other parameters also such as position, effort, responsibility,
education, etc.
B. Expectancy Theory by Vroom
The managers can correlate the preffered outcomes to the aimed performance levels.

The managers must ensure that the employees can achieve the aimed performance levels.

The deserving employees must be rewarded for their exceptional performance.

The reward system must be fair and just in an organization.

Organizations must design interesting, dynamic and challenging jobs..

The employees motivation level should be continually assessed through various techniques such
as questionnaire, personal interviews, etc.
C. Goal Setting Theory by Locke
• In the 1960s, Edwin Locke proposed that intentions to
work toward a goal are a major source of work
motivation.
• This theory has been supported in more than one
thousand studies with all types and levels of employees.
• To motivate, goals must have specificity,commitment,
challenge, and feedback.
C. Goal Setting Theory by Locke
C. Goal Setting Theory by Locke
• Goals need to be specific enough to answer the who,
what, when, where, why, and howof any expectations of
the goal.
• Employees perform better when given specific goals than
they do when given vague or abstract goals.
• One common approach is SMART goals. SMART stands
for specific,measurable, achievable, realistic, and time
bound.
C. Goal Setting Theory by Locke
• The first step in creating motivation is creating
commitment to a goal. Goal commitment is the degree of
determination a person uses to achieve an accepted goal,
and there are two main factors that determine it:
importance and self-efficacy.
• The more challenging a goal is, the more focused you
become on the task and the easierit is to avoid
unnecessary distractions.
C. Goal Setting Theory by Locke
• Finally, and most importantly, difficult goals will allow us to
develop strategies that helpus perform more effectively.
• Feedback on a goal is an ongoing requirement to be
aware of progression or regression.
• An employee will require feedback on how well he or she
is progressing toward his or her goals.
C. Goal Setting Theory by Locke
• Feedback can help an employee determine what she has
done and what she wants to do.
• The easier it is for an individual to monitor his or her own
progress, the quicker the individual will be able to make
adjustments, if needed, or continue without hesitating for
feedback .
D. Self-determination Theory by Deci and Ryan
• Self-determination theory suggests that people are
motivated to grow and change by three innate and
universal psychological needs. The concept of intrinsic
motivation or engaging inactivities for the inherent
rewards of the behavior itself, plays an important role in
self-determination theory.
D. Self-determination Theory by Deci and Ryan
• Self-determination theory grew out of the work of
psychologists Edward Deci and Richard Ryan, who first
introduced their ideas in their 1985 book “Self-
Determination and Intrinsic Motivation in Human
Behavior”.
• They developed a theory of motivation which suggested
that people tend to be driven by a need to grow and gain
fulfillment.
D. Self-determination Theory by Deci and Ryan
• Two key assumptions of the theory:The need for growth
drives behavior.
• The first assumption of self-determination theory is that people are
actively directed toward growth. Gaining mastery over challenges and
taking in new experiences are essential for developing a cohesive
sense of self.
• Autonomous motivation is important. While people are often motivated
to act byexternal rewards such as money, prizes, and acclaim (known
as extrinsic motivation), self-determination theory focuses primarily on
internal sources of motivation such as a need to gainknowledge or
independence (known as intrinsic motivation)
D. Self-determination Theory by Deci and Ryan
According to self-determination theory, people need to feel the
following in order toachieve psychological growth:
a. Autonomy: People need to feel in control of their own behaviors
and goals. This sense of being able to take direct action that will result in
real change plays a major part in helping people feel self-determined.
b. Competence: People need to gain mastery of tasks and learn
different skills. When people feel that they have the skills needed for
success, they are more likely to take actions that will help them achieve
their goals.
c. Connection or relatedness:People need to experience a sense of
belonging and attachment to other people.
D. Self-determination Theory by Deci and Ryan
D. Self-determination Theory by Deci and Ryan
– Ryan and Deci have suggested that the tendency to be either
proactive or passive is largely influenced by the social
conditions in which people are raised. Social support is key.
Through our relationships and interactions with others, we can
either foster or thwart well-being and personal growth.
– Extrinsic motivators can sometimes lower self-determination.
According to Deci, giving people extrinsic rewards for already
intrinsically motivated behavior can undermine autonomy. As
the behavior becomes increasingly controlled by external
rewards, people begin to feel less incontrol of their own
behavior and intrinsic motivation is diminished.
D. Self-determination Theory by Deci and Ryan
• Positive feedback and boost self-determination.
– Deci also suggests that offering unexpected positive
encouragement and feedback on a person's performance on a
task can increase intrinsic motivation. This type of feedback
helps people to feel more competent, which is one of the key
needsfor personal growth.
Theories of Moral Development (Kohlberg)
• Individuals, when confronted by situations where they
need to make moral decisions,exercise their own ability to
use moral reasoning.
• Lawrence Kohlberg was interested in studying the
development of moral reasoning. He based his theory on
the findings of Piaget in studying cognitive development.
• Our ability to chooseright from wrong is tied with our
ability to understand and reason logically.
Theories of Moral Development (Kohlberg)
• Kohlberg's six stages are generally organized into three
levels of moral reasons. To study moral development,
Kohlberg posed moral dilemmas to children, teenagers,
and adults, such as the following:
Theories of Moral Development (Kohlberg)
Age Moral Level Description

Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment- individuals make moral decisions based on avoiding
Young children-
Pre-conventional punishments and following rules
usually prior to
Morality Stage 2: Instrumental relavist orientation- individual focuses on self-interest and see moral
age 9
decisions in terms of personal gain or loss.

Stage 3: Interpersonal accord and conformity- individuals make moral decisions based on
Older children,
societal norms, seeking approval to others.
adolescents. Conventional Morality
Stage 4: Authority and social-order- individuals focus on maintaining social order and obeying
and most adults
authority fi gures.

Stage 5: Social Constract Orientation- individuals recognize that moral rules are not absolute
Rare
Post-conventional and may be changed for the greater good of society.
adolescents
Morality Stage 6: Universal ethical principles orientation- individual develop their ow set of moral
and few adults
principles based on universal ethical values, even if they confl ict with societal norm.
Theories of Moral Development (Kohlberg)
– Perhaps the most important critique of Kohlberg’s theory is that
it may describe the moral development of males better than it
describes that of females.
– Gilligan (1982) has argued that, because of differences in their
socialization, males tend to value principles of justice and
rights,whereas females value caring for and helping others.
– Although there is little evidence for a genderdifference in
Kohlberg’s stagesof moral development (Turiel, 1998), it is true
that girls and womentend to focus more on issues of caring,
helping, and connecting with others than do boys and
men(Jaffee & Hyde, 2000)
THE END!!!

Thank You for Listening!