ESE 1

CHAPTER 1:
Ecological Concepts

Hydrogeochemical
Cycles

Engr. Michael Joseph Monte

OUR EARTH
AND IT’S COMPONENENTS
 GEOSPHERE/
LITHOSPHERE
AND IT’S COMPONENENTS

is considered that portion

of the Earth system that
includes the Earth's
interior, rocks and
OUR EARTH

minerals, landforms and

the processes that shape
the Earth's surface.
 AND IT’S COMPONENENTS HYDROSPHERE
is the combined mass of
water found on, under,
and above the surface of
a planet
OUR EARTH
 AND IT’S COMPONENENTS BIOSPHERE
is the layer of the planet
Earth where life exists.
This layer ranges from
heights of up to ten
kilometres above sea
OUR EARTH

level, used by some birds

in flight, to depths of the
ocean.
 AND IT’S COMPONENENTS ATMOSPHERE
is a layer or a set of layers
of gases surrounding a
planet or other material
body, that is held in place
by the gravity of that
OUR EARTH

body.
 AND IT’S COMPONENENTS OUTER CORE

INNER CORE
GEOSPHERE
OUR EARTH

INNER MANTLE

OUTER MANTLE

CRUST
OUR EARTH
AND IT’S COMPONENENTS
GEOSPHERE
OUR EARTH
AND IT’S COMPONENENTS

WHAT IS CRYOSPHERE?
OUR EARTH
AND IT’S COMPONENENTS
GEOSPHERE
 AND IT’S COMPONENENTS STRATOSPHERE

ATMOSPHERE
TROPHOSPHERE
OUR EARTH

MESOSPHERE

THERMOSPHERE

EXOSPHERE
OUR EARTH
AND IT’S COMPONENENTS
ATMOSPHERE
OUR EARTH
AND IT’S COMPONENENTS
ATMOSPHERE

AND
MAGNETOSPHERE?
WHAT IS IONOSPHER
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES is a
pathway by which a chemical substance moves through biotic
(biosphere) and abiotic (lithosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere)
compartments of Earth. There are biogeochemical cycles for the
THE ELEMENTS OF LIFE

chemical elements calcium, carbon, hydrogen, mercury, nitrogen,

oxygen, phosphorus, selenium, and sulfur; molecular cycles for
water and silica; macroscopic cycles such as the rock cycle; as well
as human-induced cycles for synthetic compounds such as
polychlorinatedbiphenyl (PCB). In some cycles there are reservoirs
where a substance remains for a long period of time.

Biogeochemical cycle, any of the natural pathways by which essential

elements of living matter are circulated. The term biogeochemical is
a contraction that refers to the consideration of the biological,
geological, and chemical aspects of each cycle.
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
THE ELEMENTS OF LIFE
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
THE ELEMENTS OF LIFE
 The Carbon Cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by
which carbon is exchanged among the biosphere,
Carbon Cycle
pedosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of
the Earth. Carbon is the main component of biological
compounds as well as a major component of many minerals
such as limestone. Along with the nitrogen cycle and
the water cycle, the carbon cycle comprises a sequence of
events that are key to make Earth capable of sustaining life.
It describes the movement of carbon as it is recycled and
reused throughout the biosphere, as well as long-term
processes of carbon sequestration to and release
from carbon sinks.
 Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and
other organisms to convert light energy into chemical
Carbon Cycle
energy that can later be released to fuel the organisms'
activities. This chemical energy is stored
in carbohydrate molecules, such as sugars, which are
synthesized from carbon dioxide and water – hence the
name photosynthesis, from the Greek phōs (φῶς), "light",
and sunthesis (σύνθεσις), "putting together“
Carbon Cycle

Movement of carbon between land, atmosphere, and ocean in billions of tons per year.
Yellow numbers are natural fluxes, red are human contributions, white are stored
carbon. The effects of volcanic and tectonic activity are not included.[1]
Nitrogen Cycle The Nitrogen Cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by
which nitrogen is converted into multiple chemical forms as it
circulates among atmosphere, terrestrial, and marine
ecosystems. The conversion of nitrogen can be carried out
through both biological and physical processes. Important
processes in the nitrogen cycle include fixation,
ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification. The majority
of Earth's atmosphere (78%) is atmosphere nitrogen, making it
the largest source of nitrogen. However, atmospheric nitrogen
has limited availability for biological use, leading to a scarcity
of usable nitrogen in many types of ecosystems.
The nitrogen cycle is of particular interest to ecologists because
nitrogen availability can affect the rate of key ecosystem
processes, including primary production and decomposition.
Human activities such as fossil fuel combustion, use of artificial
nitrogen fertilizers, and release of nitrogen in wastewater have
dramatically altered the global nitrogen cycle. Human
modification of the global nitrogen cycle can negatively affect
the natural environment system and also human health.
Nitrogen Cycle Nitrogen fixation is a process by which
molecular nitrogen in the air is converted into ammonia (NH
3) or related nitrogenous compounds in soil. Atmospheric
nitrogen is molecular dinitrogen, a relatively nonreactive
molecule that is metabolically useless to all but a few
microorganisms. Biological nitrogen fixation converts N
2 into ammonia, which is metabolized by most organisms.

Nitrogen fixation is essential to life because fixed inorganic

nitrogen compounds are required for the biosynthesis of all
nitrogen-containing organic compounds, such as amino
acids and proteins, nucleoside triphosphates and nucleic
acids. As part of the nitrogen cycle, it is essential
for agriculture and the manufacture of fertilizer. It is also,
indirectly, relevant to the manufacture of all nitrogen
chemical compounds, which includes some explosives,
pharmaceuticals, and dyes.
Nitrogen Cycle Ammonification is the process by which the
organically bound nitrogen of microbial, plant, and animal
biomass is recycled after their death. Ammonification is
carried out by a diverse array of microorganisms that
perform ecological decay services, and its product is
ammonia or ammonium ion.

Assimilation in biology is the process through which

an organism incorporates nutrients from outside its body to
the more complex structures needed inside of it. The most
simple of life forms, a single-cell organism, does this via
direct intake through the cell wall
Nitrogen Cycle Nitrification is the biological oxidation of ammonia to
nitrite followed by the oxidation of the nitrite to nitrate. The
transformation of ammonia to nitrite is usually the rate
limiting step of nitrification. Nitrification is an important step
in the nitrogen cycle in soil. Nitrification is an aerobic process
performed by small groups
of autotrophic bacteria and archaea.

Denitrification is a microbially facilitated process where

nitrate (NO3−) is reduced and ultimately produces
molecular nitrogen (N2) through a series of intermediate
gaseous nitrogen oxide products. Facultative anaerobic
bacteria perform denitrification as a type of respiration
that reduces oxidized forms of nitrogen in response to the
oxidation of an electron donor such as organic matter.
Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen Cycle

This figure summarizes the global cycling of reactive nitrogen.[1] includes industrial fertilizer
production,[2] nitrogen fixed by natural ecosystems,[3] nitrogen fixed by oceans,[4]
nitrogen fixed by agricultural crops,[5] NOx emitted by biomass burning,[6] NOx emitted
from soil,[7] nitrogen fixed by lightning,[8] NH3 emitted by terrestrial ecosystems,[9]
deposition of nitrogen to terrestrial surfaces and oceans,[10][11] NH3 emitted from
oceans,[12][13][11] ocean NO2 emissions from the atmosphere,[14] denitrification in oceans,
[4][15][11]
and reactive nitrogen burial in oceans.[5]
 The phosphorus cycle is the biogeochemical
cycle that describes the movement of phosphorus
through the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. The
Phosphorus

phosphorus cycle is slow compared to other

biogeochemical cycles such as the water, carbon, and
nitrogen cycles. Unlike many other biogeochemical cycles,
the atmosphere does not play a significant role in the
movement of phosphorus, because phosphorus and
phosphorus-based compounds are usually solids at the
typical ranges of temperature and pressure found on
Earth. The production of phosphine gas (aerosol) occurs in
Cycle

only specialized, local conditions such as volcanic

eruptions. Therefore, the phosphorus cycle should be
viewed from whole Earth system and then specifically
focused on the cycle in terrestrial and aquatic systems.
 The phosphorus cycle on the land, phosphorus
gradually becomes less available to plants over
thousands of years, since it is slowly lost in runoff. Low
Phosphorus

concentration of phosphorus in soils reduces plant

growth, and slows soil microbial growth - as shown in
studies of soil microbial biomass. Soil microorganisms
act as both sinks and sources of available phosphorus in
the biogeochemical cycle. Locally, transformations of
phosphorus are chemical, biological and microbiological:
the major long-term transfers in the global cycle,
however, are driven by tectonic movements in geologic
time.
Cycle

Humans have caused major changes to the global

phosphorus cycle through shipping of phosphorus
minerals, and use of phosphorus fertilizer, and also the
shipping of food from farms to cities, where it is lost as
effluent.
 Eutrophication and dead zones
Most fertilizers used in agriculture—and on lawns and
gardens—contain both nitrogen and phosphorus, which
Phosphorus

may be carried to aquatic ecosystems in surface runoff.

Fertilizer carried in runoff may cause excessive growth of
algae or other microbes that were previously limited by
nitrogen or phosphorus. This phenomenon is called
eutrophication. At least in some cases, phosphorus, not
nitrogen, seems to be the main driver of eutrophication.
Why is eutrophication harmful? Some algae make water taste
or smell bad or produce toxic compounds. Also, when all
Cycle

of those algae die and are decomposed by microbes, large

amounts of oxygen are used up as their bodies are broken
down. This spike in oxygen usage can sharply lower
dissolved oxygen levels in the water and may lead to
death by hypoxia—lack of oxygen—for other aquatic
organisms, such as shellfish and finfish.
 An Aerosol (abbreviation of "aero-solution") is a suspension of
fine solid particles or liquid droplets in air or another gas.
Aerosols can be natural or anthropogenic. Examples of
natural aerosols are fog, mist, dust, forest exudates and
geyser steam. Examples of anthropogenic aerosols
Phosphorus

are particulate air pollutants and smoke..

Cycle
Phosphorus
Cycle

shipping of phosphorus minerals, and use of phosphorus fertilizer, and

also the shipping of food from farms to cities, where it is lost as
effluent.
Phosphorus
Cycle

shipping of phosphorus minerals, and use of phosphorus fertilizer, and

also the shipping of food from farms to cities, where it is lost as
effluent.
 The Water Cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle or the hydrological
cycle, describes the continuous movement of water on, above and below
the surface of the Earth. The mass of water on Earth remains fairly constant
over time but the partitioning of the water into the major reservoirs of
ice, fresh water, saline water and atmospheric water is variable depending
on a wide range of climatic variables. The water moves from one reservoir to
another, such as from river to ocean, or from the ocean to the atmosphere,
Hydrologic

by the physical processes of evaporation, condensation,

precipitation, infiltration, surface runoff, and subsurface flow. In doing so,
the water goes through different forms: liquid, solid (ice) and vapor.
The Water Cycle involves the exchange of energy, which leads to temperature
changes. When water evaporates, it takes up energy from its surroundings
and cools the environment. When it condenses, it releases energy and
warms the environment. These heat exchanges influence climate.
The Evaporative Phase of the cycle purifies water which then replenishes the
Cycle

land with freshwater. The flow of liquid water and ice transports minerals
across the globe. It is also involved in reshaping the geological features of
the Earth, through processes including erosion and sedimentation. The
water cycle is also essential for the maintenance of most life and ecosystems
on the planet.
Hydrologic
Cycle

The evaporative phase of the cycle purifies water which then replenishes the
land with freshwater. The flow of liquid water and ice transports minerals
across the globe. It is also involved in reshaping the geological features of
the Earth, through processes including erosion and sedimentation. The
water cycle is also essential for the maintenance of most life and ecosystems
on the planet.
 Many different processes lead to movements and phase changes in
water
Precipitation Condensed water vapor that falls to the Earth's surface.
Most precipitation occurs as rain, but also includes snow, hail, fog
drip, graupel, and sleet. Approximately 505,000 km3 (121,000 cu mi)
of water falls as precipitation each year, 398,000 km3 (95,000 cu mi)
Hydrologic

of it over the oceans. The rain on land contains

107,000 km3 (26,000 cu mi) of water per year and a snowing only
1,000 km3 (240 cu mi). 78% of global precipitation occurs over the
ocean.
Canopy interception The precipitation that is intercepted by plant
foliage eventually evaporates back to the atmosphere rather than
falling to the ground.
Snowmelt The runoff produced by melting snow.
Cycle

Runoff The variety of ways by which water moves across the land. This
includes both surface runoff and channel runoff. As it flows, the
water may seep into the ground, evaporate into the air, become
stored in lakes or reservoirs, or be extracted for agricultural or other
human uses.
 Infiltration The flow of water from the ground surface into the
ground. Once infiltrated, the water becomes soil moisture or
groundwater. A recent global study using water stable isotopes,
however, shows that not all soil moisture is equally available for
groundwater recharge or for plant transpiration.
Subsurface flow The flow of water underground, in the vadose
Hydrologic

zone and aquifers. Subsurface water may return to the surface (e.g.
as a spring or by being pumped) or eventually seep into the oceans.
Water returns to the land surface at lower elevation than where it
infiltrated, under the force of gravity or gravity induced pressures.
Groundwater tends to move slowly and is replenished slowly, so it
can remain in aquifers for thousands of years.
Evaporation The transformation of water from liquid to gas phases as
it moves from the ground or bodies of water into the overlying
Cycle

atmosphere. The source of energy for evaporation is primarily solar

radiation. Evaporation often implicitly includes transpiration
from plants, though together they are specifically referred to
as evapotranspiration. Total annual evapotranspiration amounts to
approximately 505,000 km3 (121,000 cu mi) of water,
434,000 km3 (104,000 cu mi) of which evaporates from the oceans.
86% of global evaporation occurs over the ocean.
 Sublimation The state change directly from solid water (snow or ice)
to water vapor by passing the liquid state.
Deposition This refers to changing of water vapor directly to ice.
Advection The movement of water through the atmosphere. Without
advection, water that evaporated over the oceans could not
precipitate over land.
Hydrologic

Condensation The transformation of water vapor to liquid water

droplets in the air, creating clouds and fog.
Transpiration The release of water vapor from plants and soil into the
air.
Percolation Water flows vertically through the soil and rocks under
the influence of gravity.
Cycle

Plate tectonics Water enters the mantle via subduction of oceanic

crust. Water returns to the surface via volcanism
 The Sulfur Cycle is the collection of processes by
which sulfur moves between rocks, waterways and living systems.
Such biogeochemical cycles are important in geology because they
affect many minerals. Biochemical cycles are also important for life
Sulfur Cycle

because sulfur is an essential element, being a constituent of

many proteins and cofactors, and sulfur compounds can be used as
oxidants or reductants in microbial respiration.

Human activities have a major effect on the global sulfur cycle. The
burning of coal, natural gas, and other fossil fuels has greatly
increased the amount of S in the atmosphere and ocean and
depleted the sedimentary rock sink. Without human impact sulfur
would stay tied up in rocks for millions of years until it was uplifted
through tectonic events and then released
through erosion and weathering processes. Instead it is being
drilled, pumped and burned at a steadily increasing rate. Over the
most polluted areas there has been a 30-fold increase in sulfate
deposition.
Sulfur Cycle

Mineralization in soil science is the decomposition (i.e., oxidation) of the chemical compounds
in organic matter, by which the nutrients in those compounds are released in soluble
inorganic forms that may be available to plants. Mineralization is the opposite of
immobilization.
Nutrient Cycle A nutrient cycle (or ecological recycling) is the
movement and exchange of organic and inorganic matter
back into the production of matter. Energy flow is a
unidirectional and noncyclic pathway, whereas the
movement of mineral nutrients is cyclic. Mineral cycles
include the carbon cycle, sulfur cycle, nitrogen cycle, water
cycle, phosphorus cycle, oxygen cycle, among others that
continually recycle along with other mineral nutrients
into productive ecological nutrition.
 Nutrient Cycle

nts are recycled by their

olic activities. This illustration
es nutrients through the layers of
to great depths to feed on bottom
urface to feed on krill and plankton
growth and productivity in other
Nutrient Cycle
From the largest to the smallest of creatures, nutrients
are recycled by their movement, by their wastes, and
by their metabolic activities. This illustration shows an
example of the whale pump that cycles nutrients
through the layers of the oceanic water column.
Whales can migrate to great depths to feed on bottom
fish (such as sand lance Ammodytes spp.) and surface
to feed on krill and plankton at shallower levels. The
whale pump enhances growth and productivity in
other parts of the ecosystem.
 ESE 1
CHAPTER 1:
Ecological Concepts

Ecosystems

Engr. Michael Joseph Monte

 the natural interconnection of food chains. It also implies the transfer of food energy from its source in plants through
herbivores to carnivores. Normally,

food webs consist of a number of food chains meshed together. Each food chain is a descriptive diagram including a series of
arrows, each pointing from one species to another, representing the flow of food energy from one feeding group of organisms
to another.

A food chain is a linear network of links in a food web starting from producer organisms and ending at apex predator species,
AND IT’S COMPONENENTS
detritivores, or decomposer species. A food chain also shows how the organisms are related with each other by the food they
eat. Each level of a food chain represents a different trophic level.

The trophic level of an organism is the position it occupies in a food web. A food chain is a succession of organisms that eat
other organisms and may, in turn, be eaten themselves. The trophic level of an organism is the number of steps it is from the
start of the chain.

An ecotone is a transition area between two biological communities, where two communities meet and integrate. It may be
narrow or wide, and it may be local (the zone between a field and forest) or regional (the transition between forest and
grassland ecosystems).

Bioaccumulation is the gradual accumulation of substances, such as pesticides or other chemicals, in an

organism. Bioaccumulation occurs when an organism absorbs a substance at a rate faster than that at which the substance is
OUR EARTH

lost or eliminated by catabolism and excretion

Keystone species are those which have an extremely high impact on a particular ecosystem relative to its population.
Keystone species are also critical for the overall structure and function of an ecosystem, and influence which other types of
plants and animals make up that ecosystem. Thus, in the absence of a keystone species, many ecosystems would fail to exist.
A common example of keystone species in the context of conservation biology is the predator-prey relationship. Small
predators that consume herbivorous species prevent such herbivores from decimating the plant species in the ecosystem, and
are considered keystone species. In this scenario, despite the low number of predators required to maintain a low population
of herbivorous species, without this keystone species, the herbivore population would continue to grow, and thus consume all
of the dominant plant species in the ecosystem.

An apex predator, also known as an alpha predator or top predator, is a predator at the top of a food chain, without
natural predators. Apex predators are usually defined in terms of trophic dynamics, meaning that they occupy the highest
trophic levels.

A decomposer is an organism that decomposes, or breaks down, organic material such as the remains of dead
organisms. Decomposers include bacteria and fungi.

Detritivores (also known as detrivores, detritophages, detritus feeders, or detritus eaters), are heterotrophs that obtain
nutrients by consuming detritus (decomposing plant and animal parts as well as faeces).
ECOSYSTEMS

ECOSYSTEMS
An ecosystem is a community of living organisms
in conjunction with the nonliving components of
their environment, interacting as a system. These
biotic and abiotic components are linked together
through nutrient cycles and energy flows.
 ECOSYSTEMS

Types of Ecosystem
An ecosystem can be as small as an oasis in a desert, or as big as an ocean,
spanning thousands of miles.

1. Terrestrial Ecosystem
a. Forest Ecosystems
b. Grassland Ecosystems
c. Tundra Ecosystems
d. Desert Ecosystem
e. Forest Ecosystem

2. Aquatic Ecosystem
a. Freshwater Ecosystem
b. Marine Ecosystem
ECOSYSTEMS

Terrestrial ecosystems are exclusively land-based

ecosystems. There are different types of terrestrial ecosystems
distributed around various geological zones.

A forest ecosystem consists of several plants, animals and

microorganisms that live in coordination with the abiotic factors of
the environment. Forests help in maintaining the temperature of
the earth and are the major carbon sink.

Grassland Ecosystem, In a grassland ecosystem, the vegetation is

dominated by grasses and herbs. Temperate grasslands, savanna
grasslands are some of the examples of grassland ecosystems.
ECOSYSTEMS

Tundra ecosystems are devoid of trees and are found in cold

climates or where rainfall is scarce. These are covered with snow
for most of the year. The ecosystem in the Arctic or mountain tops
is tundra type.

Deserts ecosystems are found throughout the world. These are

regions with very little rainfall. The days are hot and the nights are
cold.
ECOSYSTEMS

Aquatic ecosystems are ecosystems present in a body of

water.

The freshwater ecosystem is an aquatic ecosystem that includes

lakes, ponds, rivers, streams and wetlands. These have no salt
content in contrast with the marine ecosystem.

The marine ecosystem includes seas and oceans. These have a

more substantial salt content and greater biodiversity in
comparison to the freshwater ecosystem.
 In ecology, energy flow, also called the calorific flow,
refers to the flow of energy through a food chain, and is
the focus of study in ecological energetics. In an
ENERGY Flow
ecosystem, ecologists seek to quantify the relative
importance of different component species and feeding
relationships.

All organisms must obtain a supply of energy and nutrients from their
environment in order to survive.

The transformations of energy in an ecosystem begin first with the

input of energy from the sun.

Because, it is the first step in the production of energy for living

things, it is called “Primary production”.

Photosynthesis -- Chemical reaction where green plants use water &

carbon dioxide to store the sun’s energy in glucose.  ENERGY is
stored in glucose.
 In ecology, energy flow, also called the calorific flow,
refers to the flow of energy through a food chain, and is
the focus of study in ecological energetics. In an
ENERGY Flow
ecosystem, ecologists seek to quantify the relative
importance of different component species and feeding
relationships.

Glucose is stored as starch in plants

The majority of autotrophs are photoautotrophs that harness the

energy of the sun and pass some of this energy onto consumers
through feeding pathways.

The energy contained within producers and consumers is ultimately

passed to the decomposers that are responsible for the constant
recycling of nutrients
 In ecology, energy flow, also called the calorific flow,
refers to the flow of energy through a food chain, and is
the focus of study in ecological energetics. In an
ENERGY Flow
ecosystem, ecologists seek to quantify the relative
importance of different component species and feeding
relationships.

Thus, there is a one-way flow of energy through the biotic

community and a cycling of nutrients between the biotic and abiotic
components of the ecosystem

Energy flow cannot occur in reverse direction.

Starts from autotrophs (the producer level, i.e., first trophic level) to
Heterotrophs including plant eaters or Herbivores (second trophic
level) and so on.

The amount of energy decreases with successive trophic levels.

 In ecology, energy flow, also called the calorific flow,
refers to the flow of energy through a food chain, and is
the focus of study in ecological energetics. In an
ENERGY Flow
ecosystem, ecologists seek to quantify the relative
importance of different component species and feeding
relationships.

Only About 1% of energy from the sun is used by green plants & rest
remains unutilized.  Similarly, there is loss of energy in each trophic
level.

The transfer of food energy between the organisms in an ecosystem

can be tracked by constructing food chains, food webs, pyramids of
numbers, biomass and energy and energy flow diagrams.
 SUN
ENERGY Flow

10% 90% - HEAT

PLANTS MOUSE SNAKE WOLF

PRODUCERS PRIMARY SECONDARY TERTIARY
CONSUMER CONSUMER CONSUMER

WORMS
DECOMPOSERS
 The trophic level of an organism is the position it
occupies in a food web. A food chain is a succession of
organisms that eat other organisms and may, in turn, be
eaten themselves. The trophic level of an organism is the
number of steps it is from the start of the chain. A food
web starts at trophic level 1 with primary producers such
TROPHIC

as plants, can move to herbivores at level 2, carnivores at

level 3 or higher, and typically finish with apex predators
at level 4 or 5. The path along the chain can form either a
LEVELS

one-way flow or a food "web". Ecological communities

with higher biodiversity form more complex trophic paths.

The word trophic derives from the Greek τροφή (trophē)

referring to food or nourishment.
 0.1%

EL
LEV
4 TH
TOP
CARNIVORES

EL
1%

LEV
TROPHIC

CARNIVORES

3 RD
LEVELS

EL

10%
LEV

HERBIVORES
2 ND

100%
EL

PRODUCERS
LEV
1 ST
 An Ecological pyramid is a graphical
representation that shows the relative amounts of energy
or matter contained within each tropic level in a food
chain or food web. An ecological pyramid shows the
relationship between consumers and producers at
different tropic levels in an ecosystem.
TROPHIC

TYPES OF ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS:

LEVELS

1. Pyramid of Numbers Shows the relative number of individual

organisms at each tropic level.
2. Pyramid of Biomass A pyramid of biomass represents the total
dry mass (in grams per square meter of area) of all the organisms
in each tropic level at a particular time.
3. Pyramid of Energy A pyramid of biomass represents the rate of
energy flow and/or productivity at successive tropic levels. The
pyramids of energy are always upright
 A food chain is a
linear network of links in
a food web starting from
producer organisms and
FOOD CHAIN

ending at apex predator

species, detritivores, or
decomposer species. A
food chain also shows
how the organisms are
related with each other
by the food they eat.
Each level of a food
chain represents a
different trophic level.
 Food web is an
important ecological
concept. Basically, food
web represents feeding
relationships within a
FOOD WEB

community , it is the
natural interconnection
of food chains. It also
implies the transfer of
food energy from its
source in plants through
herbivores to
carnivores. Normally,
food webs consist of a number of food chains meshed together. Each
food chain is a descriptive diagram including a series of arrows, each
pointing from one species to another, representing the flow of food
energy from one feeding group of organisms to another.
 An ecotone is a transition area between two biological
communities, where two communities meet and integrate. It may
be narrow or wide, and it may be local (the zone between a field
and forest) or regional (the transition between forest and
grassland ecosystems).

Bioaccumulation is the gradual accumulation of substances,

FOOD WEB

such as pesticides or other chemicals, in an

organism. Bioaccumulation occurs when an organism absorbs a
substance at a rate faster than that at which the substance is lost
or eliminated by catabolism and excretion
 Keystone species are those which have an extremely high
impact on a particular ecosystem relative to its population.
Keystone species are also critical for the overall structure and
function of an ecosystem, and influence which other types of
plants and animals make up that ecosystem. Thus, in the absence
of a keystone species, many ecosystems would fail to exist. A
FOOD WEB

common example of keystone species in the context of

conservation biology is the predator-prey relationship. Small
predators that consume herbivorous species prevent such
herbivores from decimating the plant species in the ecosystem,
and are considered keystone species. In this scenario, despite the
low number of predators required to maintain a low population of
herbivorous species, without this keystone species, the herbivore
population would continue to grow, and thus consume all of the
dominant plant species in the ecosystem.
 An apex predator, also known as an alpha predator or
top predator, is a predator at the top of a food chain, without
natural predators. Apex predators are usually defined in terms of
trophic dynamics, meaning that they occupy the highest trophic
levels.
FOOD WEB

A decomposer is an organism that decomposes, or breaks

down, organic material such as the remains of dead
organisms. Decomposers include bacteria and fungi.

Detritivores (also known as detrivores, detritophages, detritus

feeders, or detritus eaters), are heterotrophs that obtain nutrients
by consuming detritus (decomposing plant and animal parts as
well as faeces).
Lesson Recap CHAPTER 1:
Ecological Concepts
•Components of the Earth

• the Cycles
BIOGEOCHEMICAL
•Ecosystems
CYCLES
•Food Chain & Food Web

ECOSYSTEMS