Chapter 18 : Statistics

by Abhik Biswas and S. Anirudh

Krishna
Theory
Types of Variables
1. Continuous Variable
– A variable which can take any value within a range.
– e.g. : wages, heights, rainfall records
2. Discrete Variable
– A variable which can not take any value within a range.
– e.g. : number of people
Types of Data
1. Raw or Ungrouped Data
– Data which is not arranged in any order.
– e.g. : 3 , 9 , 2 , 6 , 8 , 1
2. Arrayed Data
– Data arranged in ascending or descending order.
– e.g. : Ascending Order : 1 , 2 , 3 , 6 , 8 , 9
Descending Order : 9 , 8 , 6 , 3, 2 , 1
Tabulation
Adults Children Total
It is the arrangement of
data in the form of the
table. Family A 5 3 8
e.g. :
• Family A Family B 3 1 4
• 5 adults, 3 children
• Family B Family C 7 4 11
• 3 adults, 1 children
• Family C Total 15 8 23
• 7 adults, 4 children
Frequency and Frequency Distribution
Table
Frequency is the number of times a particular data in
a appears in a given set of data.
Frequency Distribution Table shows the tabular
arrangement of data with their corresponding
frequencies.
There are two type of Frequency Distribution Tables:
1. Ungrouped Frequency Distribution
2. Grouped Frequency Distribution
Ungrouped
Frequency
Distribution
Number Tally Marks Frequency
For each possible data
value, we make a row in
the table and add up 1 | 1
the total number of
occurrences by tallying 2 |||| 5
e.g. :
3 || 2
2 3 3 4 2
2 1 4 2 2 4 || 2

Total 10
Class
Class Interval is a range of values in a ungrouped
data frequency.
e.g. : 10-20, 20-30 etc.

Class Limit is the Maximum and Minimum Value of

the Class Interval.
e.g. : for 10-20, 10 is the Lower Class Limit and 20 is
the Upper Class Limit.
Types of Grouped Frequency
1. Inclusive
– Upper Class Limit of a Class Interval does not coincide
with the Lower Class Limit of the Next Class Interval.
– Both Upper and Lower Class Limits are Included in the
Interval.
– e.g. : 01-10, 11-20, 21-30 etc.
2. Exclusive
– Upper Class Limit of a Class Interval coincides with the
Lower Class Limit of the Next Class Limit.
– Only Lower Class Limit is Included in the Interval.
– e.g. : 01-10, 10-20, 20-30 etc.
Adjustment of Inclusive Grouped
Frequency
Class Intervals in Inclusive Ungrouped Frequency are
not Continuous. There are Gaps in between one
Upper Class Limit and the next Lower Class Limit.
e.g. : 01-10 , 11-20 , 21-30 , 31-40
So we convert Inclusive into Exclusive. In order to
find values in the middle, we use a process called
Adjustment.
The ‘true’ values obtained after Adjustment are
called Class Boundaries.
How to Adjust Values
01-10 , 11-20 , 21-30 , 31-40
Take the Difference between one Upper Class Limit
and the next Lower Class Limit and divide by 2. This
the Adjustment Factor.
Adjustment Factor = 11-10 / 2 = 1/2 = 0.5
Add the Adjustment Factor to the Upper Class Limits
and Subtract it from the Lower Class Limits.
Adjusted Class Intervals:
0.5-10.5 , 10.5-20.5 , 20.5-30.5 , 30.5-40.5
Inclusive
Grouped Class Tally Marks Frequency
Frequency
1-10 |||| 4
e.g. :
30 49 45 31 15 11-20 |||| 5
40 19 18 40 48
21-30 || 2
36 5 8 5 47
18 11 39 22 7 31-40 |||| 5

41-50 |||| 4

Total 20
Inclusive
Grouped
Frequency (With Class Tally Marks Frequency
Adjustment)
0.5-10.5 |||| 4
e.g. :
30 49 45 31 15 10.5-20.5 |||| 5
40 19 18 40 48
20.5-30.5 || 2
36 5 8 5 47
18 11 39 22 7 30.5-40.5 |||| 5

40.5-50.5 |||| 4

Total 20
Exclusive
Grouped Class Tally Marks Frequency
Frequency
1-10 |||| 4
e.g. :
30 49 45 31 15 10-20 |||| 5
40 19 18 40 48
20-30 | 1
36 5 8 5 47
18 11 39 22 7 30-40 |||| 4

40-50 |||| | 6

Total 20
Class Size and Mark
Class Size is the Difference between the Upper Class
Boundary and Lower Class Boundary.
For 0.5-10.5 the Class Size is 10
For 10-20 the Class Size is 10
Class Mark is the Value Midway Between the Class
Boundaries
For 0.5-10.5 the Class Mark is 0.5+10.5/2 = 11/2 =
5.5
For 10-20 the Class Mark is 10+20/2 = 30/2 = 15
Cumulative
Frequency
Table Class Frequency
Cumulative
Frequency
In this table, we take
the sum of the 1-10 4 4
frequencies of all
classes up to the given 10-20 5 9
class.
e.g. : 20-30 1 10
30 49 45 31 15
30-40 2 12
40 19 18 40 48
36 5 8 5 47 40-50 8 20

18 11 39 22 7
Cumulative
Frequency
Table Class Cumulative Frequency
We can also take that
each of the cumulative less than 10 4
frequencies are the
frequency of numbers less than 20 9
less than a particular
number.
less than 30 10
e.g. :
30 49 45 31 15 less than 40 12

40 19 18 40 48 less than 50 20
36 5 8 5 47
18 11 39 22 7
Histogram
› Convert the data into exclusive form.
› Take a suitable scale for x and y axes.
› Construct rectangles with width as class intervals
and height as frequencies.
› In a histogram, both height and width of the
rectangle matters, while in a bar chart, only the
height matters.
› If the class intervals do not start at the origin, insert
a kink or zig-zag line between the first class interval
and the origin.
Histogram for Sample Data
Class Interval
Class Interval Frequency Frequency
with Adjustment

1-10 7 0.5-10.5 7

11-20 12 10.5-20.5 12

21-30 15 20.5-30.5 15

31-40 13 30.5-40.5 13
Histogram for Sample Data
Class Interval Frequency
20

0.5-10.5 7
15

10.5-20.5 12
10

20.5-30.5 15
5

30.5-40.5 13

0.5 10.5 20.5 30.5 40.5

Frequency Polygon with Histogram
› Make a histogram of the data.
› Mark midpoints of the upper horizontal line of each
rectangle.
› Mark the midpoints of the class intervals adjacent
to the first and last bars.
› Join all the marked points in order.
Frequency Polygon + Histogram for Sample
Data
Class Interval Frequency
20

0-10 7
15

10-20 12
10

20-30 15
5

30-40 13

-10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Frequency Polygon without Histogram
› Find the class mark of each class interval as well as
those of the previous and next class intervals.
› Mark class marks along x-axis and class intervals
along y-axis of the graph paper.
› Mark the points with the class mark as the x-value
and the frequency as the y-value.
› Take the frequency of the points after and before
the first and last class interval as 0.
› Join the points.
Frequency Polygon for Sample Data
Class Interval Class Mark Frequency

-10-0 -5 0

0-10 5 7

10-20 15 12

20-30 25 15

30-40 35 13

40-50 45 0
Frequency Polygon for Sample Data
Class Mark Frequency

20
-5 0

(25,15)
5 7 15
(35,13)
(15,12)
15 12
10
25 15 (5,7)

5
35 13

(-5,0) (45,0)
45 0
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Questions – Ex
18
Answer
a) Discrete
b) Continuous
c) Discrete
d) Continuous
e) Discrete
Answer
Answer
a) Variable
b) Discrete
c) Continuous
d) 18
e) 35, 46
f) 25.5
Answer
a) Actual lower limits are 9.5, 19.5, 29.5 and 39.5
b) Mid values are 14.5, 24.5, 34.5 and 44.5
c) Actual upper limits are 19.5, 29.5, 39.5 and 49
Answer

39.5 - 44.5

= 39.5 - 44.5 =5
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Answer
Answer
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