UNIT-V

SENSORS
A.A.PATIL
SKN SIT ,Lonavala.
 Contents

Allotted Lectures : 07 Hrs

Classification of Sensors
Motion Sensor
Temperature Sensor
Semiconductor Sensor
Optical Sensor
Mechnical Transducer
Biosensors
 Lecture -1
Introduction of Sensors:
Classification of a sensor, Active/Passive,
Analog/Digital Sensor.

3
 What is a transducer
?

 Transducer is a device which converts a physical quantity to be

measured into an equivalent electrical signal ( voltage or
current ).

 A physical quantity to be measured can be temperature,

pressure, displacement, flow, vibration etc.

 The electrical signal obtained from the transducer is then used

to control the physical quantity automatically and to display
the same.
 Classification of
transducer

 Transducers can be classified into different

types based on various criteria. Criteria are as
follows :

1. Depending on the quantity to be measured.

2. Depending on the principle of operation.
3. Depending on the application area and
4. Depending on whether an external source of
excitation is required or not.

 The last criteria of classification gives rise to the

terms called “active transducers” and “passive
transducers”.
 Classification based on quantity to
be measured

Transducer

Temperature Pressure Displacement Flow Others

Transducers Transducers Transducers Transducers
Classification of
transducer
 Active transducer
 These transducers do not need any external source of
power for their operation. Therefore they are also called
as self generating type transducers.

 The active transducer can be further classified as :

1. Photo voltaic
2. Thermo electric
3. Piezoelectric
4. Electromagnetic.

 The active transducers are self generating devices which

operate under the energy conversion principle.

 At the output of active transducers we get an equivalent

electrical output signal e.g. temperature to electrical
potential, without any electrical source of energy being
 Passive transducer
 These transducers need external power supply
for their operation. So they are not “ self
generating” transducers.

 Passive transducers depends upon the change in

an electrical parameter.

 They are also known as externally power driven

transducers.

 Passive transducers are further subdivided into

following:
Passive transducer
 Comparison of active and Passive transducer
Sr. Active transducers Passive transducers
No.
1 They do not require any They require an external
external source or power source of power for their
for their operation operation.
2 They are self generating They are not self
type transducers. generating type
transducers.

3 They produce electrical They produce change in

parameter such as the electrical parameter
voltage or current such as inductance,
proportional to the resistance or capacitance
physical parameter under in response to the physical
measurement. parameter under
measurement.
4 Examples : Examples : Thermister,
thermocouple, photocell, LDR, LVDT, Phototransistor.
 Analog or Digital transducer

 Depending on the nature of output obtained from a

transducer, it is classified into two categories
namely analog transducers and digital transducer.

 Analog Transducers:
 The output of these transducers is in analog form
that means it is a function of time. The examples
of analog transducers are thermocouple, LVDT,
strain gauge etc.

 Digital Transducers :
 The output of these transducers is in the digital
form that means it is in the form of digital pulses
 Primary and Secondary transduce

 Some transducers contain the mechanical as

well as electrical devices. The mechanical
device converts the physical quantity to be
measured into a mechanical signal. Such
mechanical devices are called as the primary
transducers.

 The electrical device then converts this

mechanical signal into a corresponding
electrical signal. Such electrical devices are
known as the secondary transducers.
 Primary and Secondary transducer

LVDT ( Secondary Transducer )

C Output voltage
AC O
Input R
E

Diaphragm (Primary transducer )

Pressure
 Characteristics of a transducer

 Ruggedness
 Linearity
 Repeatability
 Accuracy
 High stability and reliability
 Speed of response
 Sensitivity
 Small size
 Important factors for transducer
selection

 Measurand characteristics
 Electrical characteristics
 Mechanical characteristics
 Time span
 Environmental considerations
 Cost and availability
 Compatibility
 Instrumentation system

The block diagram shown above is of basic instrumentation system. It

consist of primary sensing element, variable manipulation element,
data transmission element and data presentation element.

Primary sensing element

The primary sensing element is also known as sensor. Basically
transducers are used as a primary sensing element. Here, the physical
quantity (such as temperature, pressure etc.) are sensed and then
converted into analogues signal.
 Instrumentation system
Variable conversion element
It converts the output of primary sensing element into suitable form without
changing information. Basically these are secondary transducers.
Variable manipulation element
The output of transducer may be electrical signal i.e. voltage, current or
other electrical parameter. Here, manipulation means change in numerical
value of signal. This element is used to convert the signal into suitable
range.
Data transmission element
Sometimes it is not possible to give direct read out of the quality at a
particular place (Example – Measurement of temperature in the furnace). In
such a case, the data should transfer from one place to another place
through channel which is known as data transmission element. Typically
transmission path are pneumatic pipe, electrical cable and radio links. When
radio link is used, the electronic instrumentation system is called as
telemetry system.
Data presentation or controlling element
Finally the output is recorded or given to the controller to perform action. It
performs different functions like indicating, recording or controlling
 Lecture -2
Motion Sensors:
Introduction, Block Diagram, Operating
Principles and Applications of LVDT &
Accelerometer.

19
 Inductive Transducers e.g. LVDT

1. Variable inductance type (LVDT) : The inductance or

variable inductance type transducer changes in
proportion with the displacement .

Change in Inductance 
Displacement

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 Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT)

Primary

Core
Displacement

Secondary -1 Secondary-2
 Block Diagram & Circuit Diagram of LVDT

Primary

Core
Displacement

Secondary -1 Secondary-2

AC
Input
Primary

Core
Displacement
Secondary
e01
e02
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eo = e01 – e02
 Linear Variable Differential Transformer
(LVDT)
AC
Input
Primary

Core
Displacement
Secondary
e01
e02
eo = e01 – e02

Output voltage IeoI

B 0 A Core position
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Linear range
 LVDT
AC
Input
Primary

Core
Displacement
Secondary
e01
e02
eo = e01 – e02
eo = zero
Output voltage IeoI

0 Core position
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 Linear Variable Differential Transformer
(LVDT)
AC
Input
Primary

Core
Displacement
Secondary
e01
e02
eo = e01 – e02
eo = 0 – e02
eo = negative Output voltage IeoI

A 0 Core position
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Linear range
 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
AC
Input
Primary

Core
Displacement
Secondary
e01
e02
eo = e01 – e02
eo = positive
Output voltage IeoI

B 0 A Core position
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Linear range
 Performance characteristics of LVDT

 Some of the important characteristics of LVDT are :

1. Null voltage

2. Resolution

3. Linearity

4. Sensitivity

5. Dynamic response

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 Advantages of LVDT

 Very fine resolution

 High accuracy

 Very good stability

 Linearity of transfer characteristics

 Ease of fabrication and installation

 Ability to operate at high temperature

 High sensitivity.
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 Disadvantages of LVDT

 LVDT is sensitivity to the external fields. To minimize this

effect magnetic shielding is necessary.

 Complicated circuitry is needed.

 Larger displacements are required to get differential

output.

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 Accelerometer

 One of the most common inertial sensors is the accelerometer, a dynamic

sensor capable of a vast range of sensing. Accelerometers are available that
can measure acceleration in one, two, or three orthogonal axes. They are
typically used in one of three modes:
 As an inertial measurement of velocity and position;
 As a sensor of inclination, tilt, or orientation in 2 or 3 dimensions, as
referenced from the acceleration of gravity (1 g = 9.8m/s 2);
 As a vibration or impact (shock) sensor.
 There are considerable advantages to using an analog accelerometer as
opposed to an inclinometer such as a liquid tilt sensor – inclinometers tend
to output binary information (indicating a state of on or off), thus it is only
possible to detect when the tilt has exceeded some thresholding angle.

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 Accelerometer

 Types of Accelerometer
 There are several different principles upon which an analog
accelerometer can be built. Two very common types utilize
capacitive sensing and the piezoelectric effect to sense the
displacement of the proof mass proportional to the applied
acceleration.
 Capacitive
 Accelerometers that implement capacitive sensing output a
voltage dependent on the distance between two planar
surfaces. One or both of these “plates” are charged with an
electrical current. Changing the gap between the plates
changes the electrical capacity of the system, which can be
measured as a voltage output. This method of sensing is
known for its high accuracy and stability. Capacitive
accelerometers are also less prone to noise and variation
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with temperature, typically dissipate less power, and can
 Accelerometer

 Piezoelectric
 Piezoelectric sensing of acceleration is natural, as
acceleration is directly proportional to force. When certain
types of crystal are compressed, charges of opposite
polarity accumulate on opposite sides of the crystal. This is
known as the piezoelectric effect. In a piezoelectric
accelerometer, charge accumulates on the crystal and is
translated and amplified into either an output current or
voltage.
 Piezoresistive
 Piezoresistive accelerometers (also known as Strain gauge
accelerometers) work by measuring the electrical resistance
of a material when mechanical stress is applied. They are
preferred in high shock applications and they can measure
acceleration down to 0Hz. However, they have a limited
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high frequency response.
 Piezoelectric Accelerometer

 Piezo-electric crystals are man-made or naturally occurring crystals that

produce a charge output when they are compressed, flexed or subjected
to shear forces. In a piezo-electric accelerometer a mass is attached to a
piezo-electric crystal which is in turn mounted to the case of the
accelerometer. When the body of the accelerometer is subjected to
vibration the mass mounted on the crystal wants to stay still in space due
to inertia and so compresses and stretches the piezo electric crystal. This
force causes a charge to be generated and due to Newton11/27/2024
law F=ma
this force is in turn proportional to acceleration. The charge output is
 Accelerometer

 Applications
 The Applications of Accelerometer sensor are as follows:
 For inertial navigation systems, highly sensitive
accelerometers are used.
 To detect and monitor vibrations in rotating machinery.
 To display images in an upright position on screens of digital
cameras.
 For flight stabilization in drones.
 Accelerometers are used to sense orientation, coordinate
acceleration, vibration, shock.
 Used to detect the position of the device in laptops and
mobiles.
 High-frequency recording of biaxial and triaxial acceleration
in biological applications for discrimination of behavioral
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patterns of animals.
 Lecture -3
Temperature Transducer:
Introduction, Block Diagram, Operating
Principles and Applications .

35
 Introduction

Definition: A Temperature Transducer is a device that converts the thermal

quantity into any physical quantity such as mechanical energy, pressure and
electrical signals etc. E.g. In Thermocouple the electrical potential difference is
produced due to temperature difference across its terminals.

The following are the characteristic of the temperature transducer.

1.The input is always a thermal quantity.
2.Transducer mostly converts the thermal quantity into an alternating quantity.
3.It is used for measuring the temperature and heat flow of the devices.
.
 Temperature Transducers

 Basic Principle of operation

• Change in Resistance is due to change in
Temperature of Conductor
• Types
1. Thermocouples
2. Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
3. Thermister

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 Resistance type temperature sens
(RTD)

1. It has been observed that the resistance of metal increases with increase
in temperature. Therefore metals are said to have a positive temperature
coefficient of resistivity.

2. However , some semiconductor materials have a negative temperature

coefficient of resistivity, that means their resistance decreases with
increase in temperature.

Thus change in temperature changes the resistance of the conductor

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 Resistance type temperature sens
(RTD)

 The resistance type temperature sensors are of two types

1. Platinum resistance thermometer (PRT) and

2. Thermister.

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 Construction of
(RTD)

 As shown in figure, the resistance temperature detector is

composed of resistance element , internal conductors,
insulated tube reinforcing tube or sheath

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 RTD resistance measurement

VBA OP-AMP

R1 R3
S

Voltage proportional
to
B A Change in
R2 temperature
RTD

Whetstones bridge

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 Advantages of RTD

 They can be used for measurement of small as well as

large temperature difference.

 High accuracy.

 High reproducibility i.e. characteristics remain unaltered.

 Good dynamic response i.e. it responds very quickly to

the changes in temperature.

 Wide temperature range ( - 2000C to 6500C )

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 Disadvantages of RTD

 Large size

 Sophisticated instrumentation is necessary for protection

of resistance wire.

 External DC power source is required

 High cost.

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 Thermocouple

 The operation of thermocouple is based on a

phenomenon called as seeback effect.
 It states that a current flows in a closed circuit made of
two dissimilar metals if the junction of two metals are
kept at different temperatures.
 Due to this current flow, an emf proportional to the
temperature difference is produced.
Metal A (+) Current i

T1 T2
Hot junction Metal B (-)
Cold junction
T1 > T2

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 Materials used for
thermocouples

 Different metals used for manufacturing the

thermocouple are as follows:
1. Copper-constantan : 0 – 20000 F
2. Iron – constantan : 0 – 12000 F
3. Platinum – Platinum/ rhodium alloy : 0 – 30000F
4. Chromel – Alumel alloy : 0 – 9000 F

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 Materials used for
thermocouples

 Different metals used for manufacturing the

thermocouple are as follows:
1. Copper-constantan : 0 – 20000 F
2. Iron – constantan : 0 – 12000 F
3. Platinum – Platinum/ rhodium alloy : 0 – 30000F
4. Chromel – Alumel alloy : 0 – 9000 F
Thermoelectric
Emf (mV)
n
nt a

n
s ta

80 nta
a
st
con

n m
60 o t an d iu
-c an o
Rh
el -

t
40 n ns m/
I ro co u
- in
om

p er l at
Co
p –P
C hr

20
in um
P lat Temperature 0F
1000 2000 3000 11/27/2024
 Advantages of
thermocouples

1. Wide temperature range (-2000C to 11000 C)

2. External DC source is not required
3. Good sensitivity i.e. small changes in temperature can be
sensed.
4. Fast dynamic response i.e. it responds quickly to any
temperature changes.
5. Less expensive and small in size.

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 Limitations of
thermocouples

1. The temperature characteristics of thermocouple is

slightly nonlinear.

2. Thermally generated emf is small. Hence amplification is

required.

3. Cold junction compensation needs to be done for

accurate measurement of temperature.

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 Application of
thermocouples

 They are used in applications where:

1. Wide operating temperature range is required.

2. Temperature at remote places are to be measured.

3. High response is required.

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 Thermistors

 Thermistors are also temperature dependent resistors

(RTD). They are made of semiconductor materials which
have a negative temperature coefficient of resistivity.
 The variation of resistance with changes I temperature is
nonlinear.
 Thermistors can be used to measure temperatures in the
range of -1000C to 3000C.
Resistance

0 100 200 300 Temperature 0C

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 Thermistors

 The resistance of a thermistor expressed as :

RT = Ro Exp β 1 1
T To

RT = Resistance at T 0
K

R0 = Resistance at TO0 K
β = characteristics temperature

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 Materials used for
Thermistors

 Thermistors are constructed by using the materials such as sintered mixtures of

sulphides, selenides oxides of manganese, nickel, cobalt, iron, copper etc.

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 Construction of Thermistors
Glass
Leads
Glass coated
Leads

1. Bead 2. Probe

Leads Leads

3. Disc 4. Rod
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 Advantages of
Thermistors

 Small size and low cast

 Comparatively large change in resistance foe a given

change in temperature.

 Fast response over a narrow temperature range.

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 Disadvantages of
Thermistors

 Temperature Vs resistance characteristics is nonlinear.

 Needs external DC power supply for its operation.

 Not suitable for wide range operation. (range -1000C to

3000C)

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 Applications of Thermistors

 As a temperature sensor with or without compensation.

 In biomedical instrumentation.

 In measuring the temperature distribution or temperature

gradient.

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 Lecture -4
Semiconductor Sensor: Gas Sensor
Introduction, Block Diagram, Operating
Principles and Applications .

57
 Gas Sensor

Introduction :
Semiconductor sensors detect gases by a chemical reaction that takes place
.
when the gas comes in direct contact with the sensor. Tin dioxide is the most
common material used in semiconductor sensors, and the electrical resistance
in the sensor is decreased when it comes in contact with the monitored gas.

Gas detectors can be classified according to the operation

mechanism (semiconductors, oxidation, catalytic,
photoionization, infrared, etc.). Gas detectors come packaged
into two main form factors: portable devices and fixed gas
detectors
Electrochemical
Catalytic bead (pellistor)
Photoionization
Infrared point
Semiconductor
Ultrasonic
 Construction and working
Here it can be seen that there is only a single winding, on which a
number of points have been marked, and each point has equal
.
number of turns, i.e. 40 turns between two consecutive points on
the winding, which means 40 volts between those two points.
The primary voltage which is of 120 volts in this case, is supplied
between the points C and N, as these points accommodate 120
turns as well.
So the winding between point C and N is regarded as the Primary
Winding over here. Now the secondary winding will be the one,
across which we connect the external load. Since auto
transformers have a varying output voltage, so we connect a
switch with the load, so that the contacts can be varied to step up
or step down the secondary voltage. So as shown in the figure, we
make one end of the load as a fixed end and connect it to the point
N.
The other end of the load is connected on the switch, and the point
to which the switch will be connected; will be the other point of the
secondary winding. For example, in this figure, the secondary
winding is between B and N.