DATA MINING

Introductory and Advanced Topics

Part II

Margaret H. Dunham
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Southern Methodist University

Companion slides for the text by Dr. M.H.Dunham, Data Mining, Introductory and
Advanced Topics, Prentice Hall, 2002.

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 Data Mining Outline
• PART I
– Introduction
– Related Concepts
– Data Mining Techniques
• PART II
– Classification
– Clustering
– Association Rules
• PART III
– Web Mining
– Spatial Mining
– Temporal Mining

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 Classification Outline
Goal: Provide an overview of the classification problem
and introduce some of the basic algorithms

• Classification Problem Overview

• Classification Techniques
– Regression
– Distance
– Decision Trees
– Rules
– Neural Networks

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 Classification Problem

• Given a database D={t1,t2,…,tn} and a set of

classes C={C1,…,Cm}, the Classification
Problem is to define a mapping f:DgC where
each ti is assigned to one class.
• Actually divides D into equivalence classes.
• Prediction is similar, but may be viewed as
having infinite number of classes.

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 Classification Examples

• Teachers classify students’ grades as A, B, C, D,

or F.
• Identify mushrooms as poisonous or edible.
• Predict when a river will flood.
• Identify individuals with credit risks.
• Speech recognition
• Pattern recognition

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 Classification Ex: Grading

x
• If x >= 90 then grade =A.
<90 >=90
• If 80<=x<90 then grade
=B. x A

• If 70<=x<80 then grade <80 >=80

=C. x B
• If 60<=x<70 then grade
<70 >=70
=D.
x C
• If x<50 then grade =F.
<50 >=60

F D
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Classification Ex: Letter
Recognition

View letters as constructed from 5 components:

Letter A Letter B

Letter C Letter D

Letter E Letter F

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 Classification Techniques

• Approach:
1. Create specific model by evaluating
training data (or using domain experts’
knowledge).
2. Apply model developed to new data.
• Classes must be predefined
• Most common techniques use DTs, NNs,
or are based on distances or statistical
methods.
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 Defining Classes

Distance Based

Partitioning Based

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 Issues in Classification

• Missing Data
– Ignore
– Replace with assumed value
• Measuring Performance
– Classification accuracy on test data
– Confusion matrix
– OC Curve

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 Height Example Data
Name Gender Height Output1 Output2
Kristina F 1.6m Short Medium
Jim M 2m Tall Medium
Maggie F 1.9m Medium Tall
Martha F 1.88m Medium Tall
Stephanie F 1.7m Short Medium
Bob M 1.85m Medium Medium
Kathy F 1.6m Short Medium
Dave M 1.7m Short Medium
Worth M 2.2m Tall Tall
Steven M 2.1m Tall Tall
Debbie F 1.8m Medium Medium
Todd M 1.95m Medium Medium
Kim F 1.9m Medium Tall
Amy F 1.8m Medium Medium
Wynette F 1.75m Medium Medium
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Classification Performance

True Positive False Negative

False Positive True Negative

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 Confusion Matrix Example

Using height data example with Output1

correct and Output2 actual assignment

Actual Assignment
Membership Short Medium Tall
Short 0 4 0
Medium 0 5 3
Tall 0 1 2

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Operating Characteristic Curve

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 Regression
• Assume data fits a predefined function
• Determine best values for regression coefficients
c0,c1,…,cn.
• Assume an error: y = c0+c1x1+…+cnxn+e
• Estimate error using mean squared error for
training set:

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Linear Regression Poor Fit

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 Classification Using Regression

• Division: Use regression function to divide

area into regions.
• Prediction: Use regression function to predict
a class membership function. Input includes
desired class.

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 Division

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 Prediction

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Classification Using Distance

• Place items in class to which they are

“closest”.
• Must determine distance between an item
and a class.
• Classes represented by
– Centroid: Central value.
– Medoid: Representative point.
– Individual points
• Algorithm: KNN
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 K Nearest Neighbor (KNN):

• Training set includes classes.

• Examine K items near item to be classified.
• New item placed in class with the most
number of close items.
• O(q) for each tuple to be classified. (Here q
is the size of the training set.)

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KNN

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 KNN Algorithm

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 Classification Using Decision Trees

• Partitioning based: Divide search space into

rectangular regions.
• Tuple placed into class based on the region
within which it falls.
• DT approaches differ in how the tree is built:
DT Induction
• Internal nodes associated with attribute and
arcs with values for that attribute.
• Algorithms: ID3, C4.5, CART
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 Decision Tree
Given:
– D = {t1, …, tn} where ti=<ti1, …, tih>
– Database schema contains {A1, A2, …, Ah}
– Classes C={C1, …., Cm}
Decision or Classification Tree is a tree associated with D
such that
– Each internal node is labeled with attribute, Ai
– Each arc is labeled with predicate which can be
applied to attribute at parent
– Each leaf node is labeled with a class, Cj

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 DT Induction

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 DT Splits Area

M
Gender

Height

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Comparing DTs

Balanced
Deep
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 DT Issues

• Choosing Splitting Attributes

• Ordering of Splitting Attributes
• Splits
• Tree Structure
• Stopping Criteria
• Training Data
• Pruning

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Decision Tree Induction is often based on
Information Theory

So

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Information

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 DT Induction

• When all the marbles in the bowl are mixed

up, little information is given.
• When the marbles in the bowl are all from
one class and those in the other two classes
are on either side, more information is given.

Use this approach with DT Induction !

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 Information/Entropy

• Given probabilitites p1, p2, .., ps whose sum is 1,

Entropy is defined as:

• Entropy measures the amount of randomness or

surprise or uncertainty.
• Goal in classification
– no surprise
– entropy = 0

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 Entropy

log (1/p) H(p,1-p)

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 ID3

• Creates tree using information theory concepts

and tries to reduce expected number of
comparison..
• ID3 chooses split attribute with the highest
information gain:

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 ID3 Example (Output1)
• Starting state entropy:
4/15 log(15/4) + 8/15 log(15/8) + 3/15 log(15/3) = 0.4384
• Gain using gender:
– Female: 3/9 log(9/3)+6/9 log(9/6)=0.2764
– Male: 1/6 (log 6/1) + 2/6 log(6/2) + 3/6 log(6/3) = 0.4392
– Weighted sum: (9/15)(0.2764) + (6/15)(0.4392) =
0.34152
– Gain: 0.4384 – 0.34152 = 0.09688
• Gain using height:
0.4384 – (2/15)(0.301) = 0.3983
• Choose height as first splitting attribute

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 C4.5
• ID3 favors attributes with large number of
divisions
• Improved version of ID3:
– Missing Data
– Continuous Data
– Pruning
– Rules
– GainRatio:

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 CART

• Create Binary Tree

• Uses entropy
• Formula to choose split point, s, for node t:

• PL,PR probability that a tuple in the training set will be

on the left or right side of the tree.

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 CART Example

• At the start, there are six choices for split

point (right branch on equality):
– P(Gender)=2(6/15)(9/15)(2/15 + 4/15 + 3/15)=0.224
– P(1.6) = 0
– P(1.7) = 2(2/15)(13/15)(0 + 8/15 + 3/15) = 0.169
– P(1.8) = 2(5/15)(10/15)(4/15 + 6/15 + 3/15) = 0.385
– P(1.9) = 2(9/15)(6/15)(4/15 + 2/15 + 3/15) = 0.256
– P(2.0) = 2(12/15)(3/15)(4/15 + 8/15 + 3/15) = 0.32
• Split at 1.8

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 Classification Using Neural
Networks

• Typical NN structure for classification:

– One output node per class
– Output value is class membership function value
• Supervised learning
• For each tuple in training set, propagate it through
NN. Adjust weights on edges to improve future
classification.
• Algorithms: Propagation, Backpropagation, Gradient
Descent

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 NN Issues

• Number of source nodes

• Number of hidden layers
• Training data
• Number of sinks
• Interconnections
• Weights
• Activation Functions
• Learning Technique
• When to stop learning

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Decision Tree vs. Neural Network

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Propagation

Tuple Input

Output

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NN Propagation Algorithm

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Example Propagation

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 NN Learning

• Adjust weights to perform better with the

associated test data.
• Supervised: Use feedback from knowledge of
correct classification.
• Unsupervised: No knowledge of correct
classification needed.

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NN Supervised Learning

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 Supervised Learning

• Possible error values assuming output from node i is

yi but should be di:

• Change weights on arcs based on estimated error

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 NN Backpropagation

• Propagate changes to weights backward from

output layer to input layer.
• Delta Rule: r wij= c xij (dj – yj)
• Gradient Descent: technique to modify the
weights in the graph.

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Backpropagation

Error

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Backpropagation Algorithm

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Gradient Descent

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Gradient Descent Algorithm

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Output Layer Learning

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Hidden Layer Learning

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 Types of NNs

• Different NN structures used for different

problems.
• Perceptron
• Self Organizing Feature Map
• Radial Basis Function Network

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 Perceptron

• Perceptron is one of the simplest NNs.

• No hidden layers.

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 Perceptron Example

• Suppose:
– Summation: S=3x1+2x2-6
– Activation: if S>0 then 1 else 0

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 Self Organizing Feature Map
(SOFM)

• Competitive Unsupervised Learning

• Observe how neurons work in brain:
– Firing impacts firing of those near
– Neurons far apart inhibit each other
– Neurons have specific nonoverlapping tasks
• Ex: Kohonen Network

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Kohonen Network

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 Kohonen Network

• Competitive Layer – viewed as 2D grid

• Similarity between competitive nodes and input
nodes:
– Input: X = <x1, …, xh>
– Weights: <w1i, … , whi>
– Similarity defined based on dot product
• Competitive node most similar to input “wins”
• Winning node weights (as well as surrounding node
weights) increased.

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 Radial Basis Function Network

• RBF function has Gaussian shape

• RBF Networks
– Three Layers
– Hidden layer – Gaussian activation function
– Output layer – Linear activation function

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Radial Basis Function Network

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 Classification Using Rules

• Perform classification using If-Then rules

• Classification Rule: r = <a,c>
Antecedent, Consequent
• May generate from from other techniques
(DT, NN) or generate directly.
• Algorithms: Gen, RX, 1R, PRISM

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Generating Rules from DTs

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Generating Rules Example

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Generating Rules from NNs

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 1R Algorithm

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1R Example

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 PRISM Algorithm

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 PRISM Example

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 Decision Tree vs. Rules

• Tree
Ruleshas
have
implied
no ordering
order inofwhich
predicates.
splitting is
performed.
•• Tree
Only created
need to based
look aton looking
one at all
class to classes.its
generate
rules.

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 Clustering Outline
Goal: Provide an overview of the clustering problem
and introduce some of the basic algorithms

• Clustering Problem Overview

• Clustering Techniques
– Hierarchical Algorithms
– Partitional Algorithms
– Genetic Algorithm
– Clustering Large Databases

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 Clustering Examples

• Segment customer database based on similar

buying patterns.
• Group houses in a town into neighborhoods
based on similar features.
• Identify new plant species
• Identify similar Web usage patterns

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Clustering Example

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Clustering Houses

Geographic
Size
Distance
Based Based

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 Clustering vs. Classification

• No prior knowledge
– Number of clusters
– Meaning of clusters
• Unsupervised learning

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 Clustering Issues

• Outlier handling
• Dynamic data
• Interpreting results
• Evaluating results
• Number of clusters
• Data to be used
• Scalability

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 Impact of Outliers on Clustering
Outliers are sample points much different from those
of remaining set of data

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 Clustering Problem

• Given a database D={t1,t2,…,tn} of tuples and

an integer value k, the Clustering Problem is
to define a mapping f:Dg{1,..,k} where each ti
is assigned to one cluster Kj, 1<=j<=k.
• A Cluster, Kj, contains precisely those tuples
mapped to it.
• Unlike classification problem, clusters are not
known a priori.

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 Types of Clustering

• Hierarchical – Nested set of clusters created.

• Partitional – One set of clusters created.
• Incremental – Each element handled one at a
time.
• Simultaneous – All elements handled
together.
• Overlapping/Non-overlapping

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 Clustering Approaches

Clustering

Hierarchical Partitional Categorical Large DB

Agglomerative Divisive Sampling Compression

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Cluster Parameters

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 Distance Between Clusters
• Single Link: smallest distance between points
• Complete Link: largest distance between points
• Average Link: average distance between points
• Centroid: distance between centroids

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 Hierarchical Clustering

• Clusters are created in levels actually creating sets of

clusters at each level.
• Agglomerative
– Initially each item in its own cluster
– Iteratively clusters are merged together
– Bottom Up
• Divisive
– Initially all items in one cluster
– Large clusters are successively divided
– Top Down

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 Hierarchical Algorithms

• Single Link
• MST Single Link
• Complete Link
• Average Link

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 Dendrogram

• Dendrogram: a tree data

structure which illustrates
hierarchical clustering
techniques.
• Each level shows clusters for
that level.
– Leaf – individual clusters
– Root – one cluster
• A cluster at level i is the union
of its children clusters at level
i+1.

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Levels of Clustering

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 Agglomerative Example
A B C D E A B
A 0 1 2 2 3
B 1 0 2 4 3
C 2 2 0 1 5 E C

D 2 4 1 0 3
E 3 3 5 3 0
D

Threshold of

1 2 3 4 5

A B C D E
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 Divisive clustering

• All items are initially placed in one cluster

• Clusters are repeatedly split in two until all
items are in their own cluster
• Eg-MST with single link algorithm
• {A,B,C,D,E}-Largest edge between D and E
• Cutting this Cluster is split in to two-{A,B,C,D} {E}
• Remove edge between B and C -{A,B} and {C,D}
 MST Example

A B
A B C D E
A 0 1 2 2 3
B 1 0 2 4 3 E C

C 2 2 0 1 5
D 2 4 1 0 3
D
E 3 3 5 3 0

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Agglomerative Algorithm

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 Single Link

• View all items with links (distances)

between them.
• Finds maximal connected components in
this graph.
• Two clusters are merged if there is at least
one edge which connects them.
• Uses threshold distances at each level.
• Could be agglomerative or divisive.

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MST Single Link Algorithm

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Single Link Clustering

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 Partitional Clustering

• Nonhierarchical
• Creates clusters in one step as opposed to
several steps.
• Since only one set of clusters is output, the
user normally has to input the desired number
of clusters, k.
• Usually deals with static sets.

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 Partitional Algorithms

• MST -Syllabus
• Squared Error
• K-Means
• Nearest Neighbor-Syllabus
• PAM
• BEA
• GA

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MST Algorithm

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 Squared Error

• Minimized squared error

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Squared Error Algorithm

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 K-Means
• Initial set of clusters randomly chosen.
• Iteratively, items are moved among sets of
clusters until the desired set is reached.
• High degree of similarity among elements
in a cluster is obtained.
• Given a cluster Ki={ti1,ti2,…,tim}, the cluster
mean is mi = (1/m)(ti1 + … + tim)

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 K-Means Example

• Given: {2,4,10,12,3,20,30,11,25}, k=2

• Randomly assign means: m1=3,m2=4
• K1={2,3}, K2={4,10,12,20,30,11,25},
m1=2.5,m2=16
• K1={2,3,4},K2={10,12,20,30,11,25}, m1=3,m2=18
• K1={2,3,4,10},K2={12,20,30,11,25},
m1=4.75,m2=19.6
• K1={2,3,4,10,11,12},K2={20,30,25}, m1=7,m2=25
• Stop as the clusters with these means are the
same.

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K-Means Algorithm

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 Nearest Neighbor

• Items are iteratively merged into the existing

clusters that are closest.
• Incremental
• Threshold, t, used to determine if items are
added to existing clusters or a new cluster is
created.

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Nearest Neighbor Algorithm

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 Nearest Neighbour

• Example.Assume threshold as 2
• K1={A} ,look at B,dis(A,B)=1.it is less than 2 so
K1={A,B},look at C It is 2 K1={A,B,C}
• Dis (D,C)=1<2 K1={A,B,C,D}
• Look at E it is 3.
• K2={E}.
 PAM

• Partitioning Around Medoids (PAM) (K-

Medoids)
• Handles outliers well.
• Ordering of input does not impact results.
• Does not scale well.
• Each cluster represented by one item, called
the medoid.
• Initial set of k medoids randomly chosen.

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 PAM

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 PAM Cost Calculation
• At each step in algorithm, medoids are changed if
the overall cost is improved.
• Cjih – cost change for an item tj associated with
swapping medoid ti with non-medoid th.

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 PAM Algorithm

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 BEA

• Bond Energy Algorithm

• Database design (physical and logical)
• Vertical fragmentation
• Determine affinity (bond) between attributes
based on common usage.
• Algorithm outline:
1. Create affinity matrix
2. Convert to BOND matrix
3. Create regions of close bonding

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 BEA

Modified from [OV99]

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 Genetic Algorithm Example

• {A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H}
• Randomly choose initial solution:
{A,C,E} {B,F} {D,G,H} or
10101000, 01000100, 00010011
• Suppose crossover at point four and choose
1st and 3rd individuals:
10100011, 01000100, 00011000
• What should termination criteria be?

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GA Algorithm

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 Clustering Large Databases

• When clustering is used with dynamic data

Algorithms seen may not be appropriate
• Most clustering algorithms assume a large data
structure which is memory resident.
• Clustering may be performed first on a sample of
the database then applied to the entire database.
• Algorithms
– BIRCH
– DBSCAN
– CURE
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 Desired Features for Large
Databases

• One scan (or less) of DB

• Have the ability to provide status and best
answer durin alg execution- ability to be Online
• Suspendable, stoppable, resumable
• Be able to update results Incrementally when
data added or removed from DB
• Work with limited main memory
• Different techniques to scan (e.g. sampling)
• Process each tuple once
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 BIRCH

• Balanced Iterative Reducing and Clustering

using Hierarchies
• Incremental, hierarchical, one scan
• Save clustering information in a tree
• Each entry in the tree contains information
about one cluster
• New nodes inserted in closest entry in tree

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 Clustering Feature

• CT Triple: (N,LS,SS)
– N: Number of points in cluster
– LS: Sum of points in the cluster
– SS: Sum of squares of points in the cluster
• CF Tree
– Balanced search tree
– Node has CF triple for each child
– Leaf node represents cluster and has CF value for each
subcluster in it.
– Subcluster has maximum diameter

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BIRCH Algorithm

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Improve Clusters

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 DBSCAN

• Density Based Spatial Clustering of

Applications with Noise
• Outliers will not effect creation of cluster.
• Input
– MinPts – minimum number of points in cluster
– Eps – for each point in cluster there must be
another point in it less than this distance away.

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 DBSCAN Density Concepts

• Eps-neighborhood: Points within Eps distance of a

point.
• Core point: Eps-neighborhood dense enough
(MinPts)
• Directly density-reachable: A point p is directly
density-reachable from a point q if the distance is
small (Eps) and q is a core point.
• Density-reachable: A point si density-reachable
form another point if there is a path from one to
the other consisting of only core points.

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Density Concepts

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DBSCAN Algorithm

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 CURE

• Clustering Using Representatives

• Use many points to represent a cluster
instead of only one
• Points will be well scattered

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 CURE Approach

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 CURE Algorithm

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CURE for Large Databases

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Comparison of Clustering Techniques

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 Association Rules Outline
Goal: Provide an overview of basic
Association Rule mining techniques
• Association Rules Problem Overview
– Large itemsets
• Association Rules Algorithms
– Apriori
– Sampling
– Partitioning
– Parallel Algorithms
• Comparing Techniques
• Incremental Algorithms
• Advanced AR Techniques
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Example: Market Basket Data

• Items frequently purchased together:

Bread PeanutButter
• Uses:
– Placement
– Advertising
– Sales
– Coupons
• Objective: increase sales and reduce costs

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 Association Rule Definitions

• Set of items: I={I1,I2,…,Im}

• Transactions: D={t1,t2, …, tn}, tj I
• Itemset: {Ii1,Ii2, …, Iik}  I
• Support of an itemset: Percentage of
transactions which contain that itemset.
• Large (Frequent) itemset: Itemset whose
number of occurrences is above a threshold.

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Association Rules Example

I = { Beer, Bread, Jelly, Milk, PeanutButter}

Support of {Bread,PeanutButter} is 60%

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Association Rule Definitions

• Association Rule (AR): implication X  Y

where X,Y  I and X  Y = ;
• Support of AR (s) X  Y: Percentage of
transactions that contain X Y
• Confidence of AR (a) X  Y: Ratio of
number of transactions that contain X 
Y to the number that contain X

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Association Rules Ex (cont’d)

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 Association Rule Problem

• Given a set of items I={I1,I2,…,Im} and a

database of transactions D={t1,t2, …, tn}
where ti={Ii1,Ii2, …, Iik} and Iij  I, the
Association Rule Problem is to identify all
association rules X  Y with a minimum
support and confidence.
• Link Analysis
• NOTE: Support of X  Y is same as support
of X  Y.

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 Association Rule Techniques

1. Find Large Itemsets.

2. Generate rules from frequent itemsets.

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Algorithm to Generate ARs

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 Apriori

• Large Itemset Property:

Any subset of a large itemset is large.
• Contrapositive:
If an itemset is not large,
none of its supersets are large.

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Large Itemset Property

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Apriori Ex (cont’d)

s=30% a = 50%

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 Apriori Algorithm

1. C1 = Itemsets of size one in I;

2. Determine all large itemsets of size 1, L1;
3. i = 1;
4. Repeat
5. i = i + 1;
6. Ci = Apriori-Gen(Li-1);
7. Count Ci to determine Li;
8. until no more large itemsets found;

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 Apriori-Gen

• Generate candidates of size i+1 from large

itemsets of size i.
• Approach used: join large itemsets of size i if
they agree on i-1
• May also prune candidates who have subsets
that are not large.

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Apriori-Gen Example

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Apriori-Gen Example (cont’d)

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 Apriori Adv/Disadv

• Advantages:
– Uses large itemset property.
– Easily parallelized
– Easy to implement.
• Disadvantages:
– Assumes transaction database is memory
resident.
– Requires up to m database scans.

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 Sampling

• Large databases
• Sample the database and apply Apriori to the
sample.
• Potentially Large Itemsets (PL): Large itemsets
from sample
• Negative Border (BD - ):
– Generalization of Apriori-Gen applied to
itemsets of varying sizes.
– Minimal set of itemsets which are not in PL, but
whose subsets are all in PL.

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Negative Border Example

PL -
PL BD (PL)
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 Sampling Algorithm

1. Ds = sample of Database D;
2. PL = Large itemsets in Ds using smalls;
3. C = PL  BD-(PL);
4. Count C in Database using s;
5. ML = large itemsets in BD-(PL);
6. If ML =  then done
7. else C = repeated application of BD-;
8. Count C in Database;
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 Sampling Example

• Find AR assuming s = 20%

• Ds = { t1,t2}
• Smalls = 10%
• PL = {{Bread}, {Jelly}, {PeanutButter}, {Bread,Jelly},
{Bread,PeanutButter}, {Jelly, PeanutButter},
{Bread,Jelly,PeanutButter}}
• BD-(PL)={{Beer},{Milk}}
• ML = {{Beer}, {Milk}}
• Repeated application of BD- generates all
remaining itemsets

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 Sampling Adv/Disadv

• Advantages:
– Reduces number of database scans to one in the
best case and two in worst.
– Scales better.
• Disadvantages:
– Potentially large number of candidates in second
pass

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 Partitioning

• Divide database into partitions D1,D2,…,Dp

• Apply Apriori to each partition
• Any large itemset must be large in at least one
partition.

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 Partitioning Algorithm

1. Divide D into partitions D1,D2,…,Dp;

2. For I = 1 to p do
3. Li = Apriori(Di);
4. C = L1  …  Lp;
5. Count C on D to generate L;

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 Partitioning Example
L1 ={{Bread}, {Jelly}, {PeanutButter},
{Bread,Jelly}, {Bread,PeanutButter},
{Jelly, PeanutButter},
{Bread,Jelly,PeanutButter}}

D1

L2 ={{Bread}, {Milk}, {PeanutButter},

{Bread,Milk}, {Bread,PeanutButter}, {Milk,
D2 PeanutButter}, {Bread,Milk,PeanutButter},
{Beer}, {Beer,Bread}, {Beer,Milk}}

S=10%

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 Partitioning Adv/Disadv

• Advantages:
– Adapts to available main memory
– Easily parallelized
– Maximum number of database scans is two.
• Disadvantages:
– May have many candidates during second scan.

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 Parallelizing AR Algorithms

• Based on Apriori
• Techniques differ:
– What is counted at each site
– How data (transactions) are distributed
• Data Parallelism
– Data partitioned
– Count Distribution Algorithm
• Task Parallelism
– Data and candidates partitioned
– Data Distribution Algorithm

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 Count Distribution Algorithm(CDA)
1. Place data partition at each site.
2. In Parallel at each site do
3. C1 = Itemsets of size one in I;
4. Count C1;
5. Broadcast counts to all sites;
6. Determine global large itemsets of size 1, L1;
7. i = 1;
8. Repeat
9. i = i + 1;
10. Ci = Apriori-Gen(Li-1);
11. Count Ci;
12. Broadcast counts to all sites;
13. Determine global large itemsets of size i, Li;
14. until no more large itemsets found;
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CDA Example

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 Data Distribution Algorithm(DDA)
1. Place data partition at each site.
2. In Parallel at each site do
3. Determine local candidates of size 1 to count;
4. Broadcast local transactions to other sites;
5. Count local candidates of size 1 on all data;
6. Determine large itemsets of size 1 for local
candidates;
7. Broadcast large itemsets to all sites;
8. Determine L1;
9. i = 1;
10. Repeat
11. i = i + 1;
12. Ci = Apriori-Gen(Li-1);
13. Determine local candidates of size i to count;
14. Count, broadcast, and find Li;
15. until no more large itemsets found;
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DDA Example

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 Comparing AR Techniques

• Target
• Type
• Data Type
• Data Source
• Technique
• Itemset Strategy and Data Structure
• Transaction Strategy and Data Structure
• Optimization
• Architecture
• Parallelism Strategy
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Comparison of AR Techniques

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Hash Tree

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Incremental Association Rules

• Generate ARs in a dynamic database.

• Problem: algorithms assume static
database
• Objective:
– Know large itemsets for D
– Find large itemsets for D  {D D}
• Must be large in either D or D D
• Save Li and counts

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 Note on ARs

• Many applications outside market basket

data analysis
– Prediction (telecom switch failure)
– Web usage mining
• Many different types of association rules
– Temporal
– Spatial
– Causal

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 Advanced AR Techniques

• Generalized Association Rules

• Multiple-Level Association Rules
• Quantitative Association Rules
• Using multiple minimum supports
• Correlation Rules

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 Measuring Quality of Rules

• Support
• Confidence
• Interest
• Conviction
• Chi Squared Test

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