Back

To School
But We will still make notes ...
 We will be
successful
Discipline
through
Hard Work
Self Regulation
Punctuality
Integrity
Exam Format

Two (2) papers:

Paper 1: 45MCQs
[40%]
Paper 2: 3 Questions
[40%]
SBA

12-14 Labs to be done

4 Skills to be tested

Lab instructions & Templates for write-up to be

posted on Moodle

Labs to be submitted on Moodle

The Course: Unit 1
Chemistry
Module 1: Fundamentals of
Chemistry
Module 2: Reaction Kinetics &
Equilibria
Module 3: Chemistry of the
Elements
Fundamentals of Chemistry

● Mole Concept ● Bonding &

● Atomic Structure
Structure ● Kinetic
● Electronic Theory
Structure ● Chemical
Energetics
The Mole
Circle how you feel about this topic right now
Why the mole?
• ∙Atoms and molecules are too small to keep track of
individually! It is easier to count them in packages.

• Same concept as the dozen!

• ∙A mole is a package of many, many, many particles

(like atoms or molecules). How many exactly?
 More Mole Fun Facts
• 1 mole (abbreviated “mol”) =
6.0221367 x 1023 representative particles

• representative particles = atoms, ions, electrons,

molecules, or formula units

• We can just round the mole to 3 sig. figs:

6.02 x 1023 particles
• 6.02 x 1023 is called “Avogadro’s Number”
 A mole is a lot…..
The mole is so many particles, it is really only useful for
counting particles of matter.
There is not a mole of people on earth…
There is not a mole of pennies on earth…
There is not a mole of stars in the Milky Way
There might be a mole of stars in the universe……
The Mole
But, a gallon of
water contains
210 moles of
water molecules!
What are representative particles?
• The fundamental types of particles that make up pure
substances (elements and compounds)
• Some pure substances are made of atoms
(for examples, all metals and noble gases)
• Some pure substances are made of molecules
(for example, all covalent compounds, like water)

• Some pure substances are made of formula units

(for example, all ionic compounds, like table salt)
Representative particles….
• It does matter what type of representative particle a pure
substance is made of, CXC expects you to know this for
common substances.

• All you need to know is that if you have a mole of a pure

substance, you have 6.02 x 1023 of its particles.
• So:
a mole of sugar is 6.02 x 1023 molecules
a mole of helium is 6.02 x 1023 atoms
6.02 x 1023
Why this number??
• It is based on the number of particles in 12 grams of pure 12C

12 g 12C .001 kg 1 amu

1 atom 12C
1g 1.6605 x 10-27 kg
12 amu

= 6.02 x 1023 atoms 12C

Converting Moles ↔ Rep. Particles
Use the relationship:
1 mol = 6.02 x 1023 (L) rep. particles

Ex 1) 3.0 moles of Na = _____ atoms Na?

Ex 2) 3.01 x 1025 molec. of CH2O = _____ moles CH2O?

1. How many molecules are there in 10 moles of water?
1. How many moles are contained in 3.01 X
1024 atoms of magnesium?
3. How many ions are present in 0.5
moles of sodium fluoride (CaF2)?
4. How many moles of O atoms are
present in 2 moles of Fe2(SO4)3 ?
Molar Mass

• We do not measure out substances in terms of moles,

but rather, in terms of mass (grams).

• There is a simple relationship between the amount of

moles and the mass of an element….it can be found
right on the periodic table!
 Molar Mass

● The mass of 1 mole of a substance

or
● The mass which contains 6.02 x 1023 particles

● It is the same value as the relative atomic mass

or RMM or RFM but molar mass has units
Relationship between Relative Atomic Mass
(Ar) and Molar Mass
12
C
6
The relative atomic mass of an atom
of an element in amu is also the
6.02 x 1023
Why this number??
• It is based on the number of particles in 12 grams of pure 12C

12 g 12C .001 kg 1 amu

1 atom 12C
1g 1.6605 x 10-27 kg
12 amu

= 6.02 x 1023 atoms 12C

Molar Mass

The molar mass of Mg is 24 g/mol, this means:

1 Mole or 6.02 x 1023 atoms of Mg has mass 24g

What is the mass of 0.5 moles of nitrogen molecules?

N=14
5. How many moles are contained
in 64 g of oxygen gas?
How many molecules are present in 56 g
of nitrogen gas? N=14
What is the mass of 3.01 x 1023 molecules of
carbon dioxide?
Conversions between grams,
moles and atoms

Copyright McGraw-Hill 2009 31

Molar Volume
►Avogadro's Law
► Avogadro's law states that equal volumes of gases
contain the same number of particles (atoms or
molecules) under the same conditions of
temperature and pressure.
Avogadro’s Law
This Means Volume of a gas is proportional to number of
particles; and since Number of particles is proportional to
Number of Moles, then Volume of a gas must be
proportional to number of moles.

Therefore we should expect that 1 mol of a gas should

occupy a fixed volume under given conditions of
temperature and pressure

This volume is known as Molar Volume

 What is molar volume?
The molar volume of a substance (at certain conditions) is
the volume occupied by one mole (6.0 x 1023 molecules ) of the
substance (under those conditions). Molar volume is
expressed in dm3 mol–1 for gases.
Molar volumes of gases
Gases are compressible. Changes in pressure and temperature can
alter the volume occupied by them. The volumes of any two gas
samples should be compared at the same temperature and pressure
Molar Volume at Standard Temperature and
Pressure (STP)

1 mole of a gas occupies 22.4 dm3 / 22400 cm3 at

STP where temperature is 0oC or 273 K and
Pressure 101.3 kPa (1 atmosphere).
Molar Volume at Room Temperature and Pressure
(RTP)

● At RTP 1 mole of a gas occupies 24dm 3 or

24000 cm3 where, T is 25 oC and P is 101.3 kPa
(1 atmosphere).
What volume is occupied by 0.25 moles of
nitrogen gas at RTP?
How many moles are present in 11200
cm3 of oxygen measured at STP?
What is the mass in g of 2.4 m3 of
methane (CH4) measured at RTP?
What is the STP volume of
3.01 x 10 atoms of helium?
25
Deducing the Number of Moles of Gas
● The number of moles of a gas can be deduced from the
following equation:

Number of moles = Given volume

Molar volume
What was easy What was What was
about the mole interesting and too hard
concept so far? challenging about about the
mole concept so mole so far?
far?
Deducing the Molar Mass of a Gas
- Done by applying Avogadro’s Law
- Volume of gas is proportional to # of Moles
- If mass of a certain volume is known the mass
of one mole can be determined
4.6 g of a gaseous oxide of nitrogen occupies 2.24 dm 3 at
STP. What is the molar mass of the gas?
The Mole and Chemical Formulae
● Molecular Formula (M.F.)- gives the actual number of each type of
atom present in one molecule of the compound
● Multiple of empirical formula (E.F.)

M.F. of glucose is C6H12O6

Empirical Formula (E.F.)- gives the simplest whole number of the

atoms present in a compound.

E.F. of glucose is CH2O

 Empirical & Molecular Formula
A compound contains 77.7 % Fe and 22.3 % O by mass, determine its empirical
formula. Given that the RMM of the compound is 72, determine its molecular
formula.
 Combustion Analysis Q18
12.915 g of a organic compound was burned in an atmosphere of excess
oxygen. Subsequent analysis of the gaseous result yielded 18.942 g carbon
dioxide and 7.749 g of water. Determine the empirical formula of the substance.
Given that the RMM of the compound is 60, find its molecular formula.
 Combustion Analysis Q19
After combustion with excess oxygen, a 12.501 g of an organic compound
produced 38.196 g of carbon dioxide and 18.752 of water. Establish the
empirical formula of the compound. Given that the RMM of the
compound is 72, determine its molecular formula.
 The Mole and Equations
The balanced (stoichiometric) equation give the
mole ratio in which reactants combine to give
products
2Mg + O2 = 2MgO
2 mol : 1mol : 2 mol
 Question 21
16.8 g of Calcium II nitrate is heated strongly until it decomposes. Write an equation
for the reaction. Find:

a. The moles of oxygen formed

b. The mass of calcium oxide produced

c. The volume of nitrogen dioxide released at RTP

 Question 21
16.8 g magnesium carbonate is reacted with excess hydrochloric acid. Write an
equation for the reaction. Find:

a. The moles of magnesium chloride formed

b. The mass of water produced

c. The volume of carbon dioxide released at RTP

 Limiting Reactants
• LR is the reactant which determines the
maximum amount of product formed
• It is the reactant in short supply
• Hint: If you are given the amounts of all the
reactants, then you must determine the LR
even if you are not told to do so!!
 Question 22
5.00 g of iron and 5.00 g of sulphur are heated together to form iron II sulphide.
Which reactant is the limiting reactant? What mass of product is formed?
 Question 22
In the blast furnace, the overall reaction is:

2Fe2O3 (s) + 3C (s) → 3CO2 (g) + 4Fe (s)

What is the maximum mass of iron that can be obtained from 300 g of iron III
Oxide and 50g of Coke?
 Percentage Yield
Most reactions do not go to completion, there is
less than 100% conversion of reactants to
products
 Question 24
Phenol, C6H5OH, is converted to trichlorophenol, C6H2Cl3OH. If 475
g of product are obtained from 250 g of phenol, calculate the
percentage yield.
 Question 25
I n the the manufacture of calcium carbide,

CaO (s) + 3C (s) → CaC2 (s) + CO (g)

What is the maximum mass of calcium carbide which can be obtained from
200 g of quicklime and 200 g of coke? Given that 194 g of
calcium carbide was actually produced under factory conditions, determine
the percentage yield.
 Question 26
I n the manufacture of ammonium sulphate fertilizer

H2SO4 (aq) + 2NH3 (g) → (NH4)2SO4 (aq)

Calculate the percentage yield when 121g of ammonium sulphate are

obtained from a reaction between 100 g of sulphuric acid and 50g of
ammonia.

S=32, N=14, O=16, H=1

The Mole and Solutions
 Units of Concentration
● A solution is a homogeneous
mixture of one substance (the
solute) dissolved in another
substance (the solvent).
● Concentration is a ratio of the
amount of solute to the
amount of solvent.
Concentration

Three Types:
● Percentage Concentration
● Mass concentration
● Molar Concentration
Percentage Concentration (m/v)

% Concentration is the mass, in g, of solute present in 100 cm 3 of

solution.

Example:

Consider a 250 cm3 solution which has 1.0 g of sodium hydroxide

dissolved in it; what is the percentage concentration of NaOH in
this solution?
Percentage Concentration-your
turn
Example:

Consider a 200 cm3 solution which has 5.3 g of sodium carbonate

dissolved in it; what is the percentage concentration of Na 2CO3 in
this solution?
 % Concentration v/v and m/m
● Percent volume
% volume = volume solute (ml) x 100
volume solution (ml)
● Percent mass
% mass = mass solute (g) x 100
mass solution (g)
Solution = solvent + solute
 % Concentration (v/v)
Example 1:
What is the percent by volume concentration of a
solution in which 75.0 ml of ethanol is diluted to a
volume of 250.0 ml?
75.0 ml x 100 = 30.0%

250.0 ml
 % Concentration (v/v)
Example 2:
What volume of acetic acid is present in a bottle
containing
350.0 ml of a solution which measures 5.00%
concentration? x = 0.05
350.0 ml

x = 17.5 ml
 % Concentration (m/v)
Example 3:
Find the percent by mass in which 41.0 g of NaCl is
dissolved in 331 grams of water.

41 g x 100 = 11.0%

372 g
Mass Concentration

Mass Concentration is the mass, in g, of solute present in 1 dm3

or 1000 cm3 of solution.

Example:

Consider a 250 cm3 solution which has 1.0 g of sodium hydroxide

dissolved in it; what is the mass concentration of NaOH in this
solution?
Mass Concentration

Mass Concentration is the mass, in g, of solute present in 1 dm3

or 1000 cm3 of solution.

Example:

Consider a 200 cm3 solution which has 5.3 g of sodium carbonate

dissolved in it; what is the mass concentration of Na 2CO3 in this
solution?
Molar Concentration

Molar Concentration is the no. of moles of solute present in 1000

cm3 of solution.

Example:

Consider a 250 cm3 solution which has 1.0 g of sodium hydroxide

dissolved in it; what is the percentage concentration of NaOH in
this solution?

Na = 23, H=1, O=16

 Units of Concentration
● Molarity (M) is the most common unit
of concentration
● Molarity is an expression of
moles/Liter
or mol/dm3 of the solute.
Molar Concentration Calculation
Example:

Consider a 200 cm3 solution which has 5.3 g of sodium carbonate

dissolved in it; what is the molar concentration of Na 2CO3 in this
solution?

Na = 23, C=12, O=16

Standard Solutions

A standard solution is on which has a

known concentration or whose
concentration can be calculated

Eg 0.005M HCl (aq)

Preparation of Standard
Solutions
Two methods:

● Dissolving a known mass of solute in some solvent in a

volumetric flask and making it up to a certain volume
with solvent

● Diluting another standard solution

Method 1
 Making a standard Solution
● How many grams of NaCl would you need to
prepare 200.0 mL of a 5 M solution?
Making a Standard Solution
What mass of NaOH is required to make up 2L of 0.025M sodium
hydroxide solution?
 Making Standard Solutions
● To determine how to make a stock solution
of sodium chloride, use the formula:
● Easy Formula:

g = M x L x molar mass
Dilution Method
 Diluting Solutions
● Often once you have made a stock
solution, you need to dilute it to a
working concentration.
● To determine how to dilute the stock
solution, use the formula:
C – concentration of stock
C1V1 = C2V2 1
C - concentration of diluted
2
solution
V1 – volume needed of stock
V2 – final volume of dilution
 Diluting Solutions

Example 5:
How many milliliters of a 5 M stock solution of NaCl
are
needed to C
prepare
V = 100Cml ofV a 0.4 M solution?
1 1 2 2
(5) V1 = (0.4)(100)
V1= 8 ml
Dilution Method
What volume of 6M HCl solution is required to make 250 cm3 of 0.03M HCl
solution?
Titrations
What volume of 0.125M sodium hydroxide solution is
needed to titrate 25.0 cm3 of 0.085M sulphuric acid?
30.0 cm3 of a HCl solution containing 1.52 g/dm 3 reacted exactly with
25 cm3 of a hydroxide (XOH) solution containing 7.50 g/dm3. Find the
relative atomic mass of X and identify the element.
5.125 g of washing soda crystals are dissolved and made up to 250 cm 3 of
solution. A 25.0 cm3 aliquot of the solution requires 35.8 cm 3 of 0.05M
sulphuric acid for neutralization. Calculate the % of sodium hydroxide in the
crystals.
What volume of 0.125M sodium hydroxide solution is needed to
titrate 25.0 cm3 of 0.085M sulphuric acid?
Back Titration
Back Titration

Involves adding a known excess of acid or

base to an analyte and titrating the
unreacted acid or base with standard
solution.

Moles of Acid Reacting =

Moles of acid added - moles of unreacted

acid