Deformation Fundamentals

University of Bahrain
Course: Manufacturing Fundamentals (MENG

312)
Outline:
• Mechanical properties
• Flow stress
• Temperature in metal forming
• Strain rate sensitivity
Deformation Fundamentals
Instructor: Prof. Dr. G. Hussain
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Mechanical Properties of
Engineering Materials
 The properties of a material which determine its
behavior when it is subjected to mechanical
stresses
 Include strength, modulus of elasticity, hardness,
toughness, ductility, etc
 Objective in Design Phase -> Withstand the
stresses without significant changes in geometry
 Objective in Manufacturing Phase -> Apply the
stresses that exceed the yield strength so as to
change the shape of the part
Tensile Properties
Tensile-test fracture mechanism
-
Stress-Strain
Relationship- Engg
Stress-Strain Relationship-
True
-
Engg stress:
Engg strain:
e = (L-Lo)/Lo
• For design, engg stress & engg strain are useful

• For manufacturing, true stress & true strain are useful
Strength of a Material
 The strength of a material is its ability to
withstand an applied stress/force without failure
 Two categories -> Yield Strength and Ultimate
Strength
 Yield strength refers to the point on the
engineering stress-strain curve beyond which the
material begins deformation that cannot be
reversed upon removal of the loading
 Ultimate strength refers to the point on the
engineering stress-strain curve corresponding to
the maximum stress.
7
Plastic deformation
 Plastic region of stress-strain curve is
primary interest because material is
plastically deformed
 In plastic region, metal's behavior is
expressed by the flow curve:
Y f K  n
where K = strength coefficient;

and n = strain hardening
exponent
 Flow curve is based on true
stress and true strain
8
Flow Stress
 For most metals at room temperature,
strength increases when deformed due to
strain hardening
 Flow stress = instantaneous value of stress
required to continue deforming the material
Y f K  n
where Yf = flow stress, i.e., the yield

strength as a function of strain
9
Average Flow Stress

 Determined by integrating the flow curve
equation between zero and the final
strain value defining the range of interest
_ K n
Yf 
1 n
_
where Y f = average flow stress; and  =
maximum strain during deformation
process. n = strain hardening exponent
10
Metal Forming
Large group of manufacturing processes
in which plastic deformation is used to
change the shape of metal workpieces
 The tool, usually called a die, applies
stresses that exceed the yield strength
of the metal
 The metal takes a shape determined by
the geometry of the die
11
Stresses in Metal Forming

 Stresses to plastically deform the metal
are usually compressive
 Examples: rolling, forging, extrusion
 However, some forming processes
 Stretch the metal (tensile stresses)
 Others bend the metal (tensile and
compressive)
 Still others apply shear stresses (shear
spinning)
12
Material Properties in Metal

Forming
 Desirable material properties:
 Low yield strength
 High ductility
 These properties are affected by
temperature:
 Ductility increases and yield strength
decreases when work temperature is raised
 Other factors:
 Strain rate and friction
13
Basic Types of Deformation

Processes
1. Bulk deformation
 Rolling
 Forging (stock has high V/A)
 Extrusion
 Wire and bar drawing
2. Sheet metalworking
 Bending
 Deep drawing
(stock has low V/A)
 Cutting
 Miscellaneous processes
14
Temperature in Metal
Forming
 Forany metal, K and n in the flow curve

depend on temperature
 Both strength (K) and strain hardening
(n) are reduced at higher
temperatures
 In addition, ductility is increased at
higher temperatures
15
Temperature in Metal
Forming
 Any deformation operation can be
accomplished with lower forces and
power at elevated temperature
 Three temperature ranges in metal
forming:
 Cold working
 Warm working
 Hot working
16
1. Cold Working
 Performed at room temperature or
slightly above
 Many cold forming processes are
important mass production operations
 Minimum or no machining usually
required
 These operations are near net shape
or net shape processes
17
Advantages of Cold Forming

18
Disadvantages of Cold
Forming
 Higher forces and power required in the
deformation operation
 Ductility and strain hardening limit the
amount of forming that can be done
 In some cases, metal must be
annealed to allow further deformation
 In other cases, metal is simply not
ductile enough to be cold worked
19
2. Warm Working
20
Advantages of Warm
Working
 Lower forces and power than in cold
working
 More intricate work geometries possible
 Need for annealing may be reduced or
eliminated
 Low spring back
Disadvantage:
1. Scaling of part surface
21
3. Hot Working
 Deformation at temperatures above the
recrystallization temperature
 Recrystallization temperature = about
one‑half of melting point on absolute scale
 In practice, hot working usually performed
somewhat above 0.5Tm
 Metal continues to soften as temperature
increases above 0.5Tm, enhancing
advantage of hot working above this level
22
Why Hot Working?

Capability for substantial plastic deformation
of the metal ‑ far more than possible with
cold working or warm working
 Why?
 Strength coefficient (K) is substantially
less than at room temperature
 Strain hardening exponent (n) is zero
(theoretically)
 Ductility is significantly increased
23
Advantages of Hot Working

 Workpart shape can be significantly altered
 Lower forces and power required
 Metals that usually fracture in cold working
can be hot formed
 Strength properties of product are generally
isotropic
 No work hardening occurs during forming
 Advantageous in cases when part is to be
subsequently processed by cold forming
24
Disadvantages of Hot
Working
 Lower dimensional accuracy in case of
bulk forming
 Higher total energy required (due to the
thermal energy to heat the workpiece)
 Work surface oxidation (scale), poorer
surface finish
 Shorter tool life
26
Strain Rate Sensitivity

 Theoretically, a metal in hot working
behaves like a perfectly plastic material,
with strain hardening exponent n = 0
 The metal should continue to flow at the
same flow stress, once that stress is
reached
 However, an additional phenomenon
occurs during deformation, especially at
elevated temperatures: Strain rate
sensitivity
27
What is Strain Rate?

 Strain rate in forming is directly related
to speed of deformation v
 Deformation speed v = velocity of the
ram or other movement of the equipment
 Strain rate is defined:
 . v / h
.

where = true strain rate; and h = instantaneous
height of workpiece being deformed
29
Effect of Strain Rate on Flow

Stress
 Flow stress is a function of temperature
 At hot working temperatures, flow stress
also depends on strain rate
 As strain rate increases, resistance to
deformation increases
 This effect is known as strain‑rate
sensitivity
30
Effect of strain rate on flow stress is called strain rate sensitivity
Log-Log
scale
(a) Effect of strain rate on flow stress at an elevated work temperature.

(b) Same relationship plotted on log‑log coordinates.
31

Equation
.m
 C
where C = strength constant (similar

but not equal to strength coefficient
in flow curve equation), and m =
strain‑rate sensitivity/ exponent
32
Effect of Temperature on Flow Stress
C
Effect of temperature on flow
stress for a typical metal. The
constant C, as indicated by
the intersection of each plot
with the vertical dashed line
at strain rate = 1.0,
decreases, and m (slope of
each plot) increases with
increasing temperature.
Log-Log
scale
33
Observations about Strain Rate

Sensitivity
 Increasing temperature decreases C and
increases m
 At room temperature, effect of strain
rate is almost negligible
 As temperature increases, strain rate
becomes increasingly important in
determining flow stress

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University of Bahrain

Course: Manufacturing Fundamentals (MENG

Instructor: Prof. Dr. G. Hussain

• For design, engg stress & engg strain are useful

where K = strength coefficient;

where Yf = flow stress, i.e., the yield

Average Flow Stress

Stresses in Metal Forming

Material Properties in Metal

Basic Types of Deformation

 Forany metal, K and n in the flow curve

Advantages of Cold Forming

Why Hot Working?

Advantages of Hot Working

Strain Rate Sensitivity

What is Strain Rate?

Effect of Strain Rate on Flow

(a) Effect of strain rate on flow stress at an elevated work temperature.

Strain Rate Sensitivity

where C = strength constant (similar

Effect of Temperature on Flow Stress

Observations about Strain Rate

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