Advanced DBMS

Unit-2
Parallel Databases
• Introduction
• I/O Parallelism
• Interquery Parallelism
• Intraquery Parallelism
• Intraoperation Parallelism
• Interoperation Parallelism
• Introduction to Distributed Databases
Introduction

• Parallel machines are becoming quite common and affordable

• Prices of microprocessors, memory and disks have dropped sharply
• Recent desktop computers feature multiple processors and this trend is
projected to accelerate
• Databases are growing increasingly large
• large volumes of transaction data are collected and stored for later analysis.
• multimedia objects like images are increasingly stored in databases
• Large-scale parallel database systems increasingly used for:
• storing large volumes of data
• processing time-consuming decision-support queries
• providing high throughput for transaction processing
Parallelism in Databases
• Data can be partitioned across multiple disks for parallel I/O.
• Individual relational operations (e.g., sort, join, aggregation) can be executed in
parallel
• data can be partitioned and each processor can work independently on its
own partition.
• Queries are expressed in high level language (SQL, translated to relational
algebra)
• makes parallelization easier.
• Different queries can be run in parallel with each other. Concurrency control
takes care of conflicts.
• Thus, databases naturally lend themselves to parallelism.
 I/O Parallelism
• Reduce the time required to retrieve relations from disk by partitioning
• The relations on multiple disks.
• Horizontal partitioning – tuples of a relation are divided among many
disks such that each tuple resides on one disk.
• Partitioning techniques (number of disks = n):
Round-robin:
Send the I th tuple inserted in the relation to disk i mod n.
Hash partitioning:
• Choose one or more attributes as the partitioning attributes.
• Choose hash function h with range 0…n - 1
• Let i denote result of hash function h applied to the partitioning
attribute value of a tuple. Send tuple to disk i.
I/O Parallelism (Cont.)
• Partitioning techniques (cont.):
• Range partitioning:
• Choose an attribute as the partitioning attribute.
• A partitioning vector [vo, v1, ..., vn-2] is chosen.
• Let v be the partitioning attribute value of a tuple. Tuples such that vi
 vi+1 go to disk I + 1. Tuples with v < v0 go to disk 0 and tuples with v
 vn-2 go to disk n-1.
E.g., with a partitioning vector [5,11], a tuple with partitioning
attribute value of 2 will go to disk 0, a tuple with value 8 will go to
disk 1, while a tuple with value 20 will go to disk2.
Interquery Parallelism
• Queries/transactions execute in parallel with one another.
• Increases transaction throughput; used primarily to scale up a
transaction processing system to support a larger number of
transactions per second.
• Easiest form of parallelism to support, particularly in a shared-memory
parallel database, because even sequential database systems support
concurrent processing.
• More complicated to implement on shared-disk or shared-nothing
architectures
• Locking and logging must be coordinated by passing messages
between processors.
• Data in a local buffer may have been updated at another processor.
• Cache-coherency has to be maintained — reads and writes of data
in buffer must find latest version of data.
Intraquery Parallelism
• Execution of a single query in parallel on multiple processors/disks; important for
speeding up long-running queries.
• Two complementary forms of intraquery parallelism:
• Intraoperation Parallelism – parallelize the execution of each individual
operation in the query.
• Interoperation Parallelism – execute the different operations in a query
expression in parallel.
the first form scales better with increasing parallelism because
the number of tuples processed by each operation is typically more than the
number of operations in a query.
Introduction to Distributed
Databases
• A distributed database is basically a database that is not
limited to one system, it is spread over different sites, i.e, on
multiple computers or over a network of computers.
• A distributed database system is located on various sites that
don’t share physical components. This may be required when
a particular database needs to be accessed by various users
globally. It needs to be managed such that for the users it
looks like one single database.
Distributed Databases-Types
Homogeneous Database:
In a homogeneous database, all different sites store database
identically. The operating system, database management
system, and the data structures used – all are the same at all
sites. Hence, they’re easy to manage.
Distributed Databases-Types
Heterogeneous Database:
In a heterogeneous distributed database, different sites can use
different schema and software that can lead to problems in
query processing and transactions. Also, a particular site might
be completely unaware of the other sites. Different computers
may use a different operating system, different database
application. They may even use different data models for the
database. Hence, translations are required for different sites to
communicate.
Distributed Databases-Data
Storage
1. Replication –
In this approach, the entire relationship is stored redundantly
at 2 or more sites. If the entire database is available at all
sites, it is a fully redundant database. Hence, in replication,
systems maintain copies of data.
Distributed Databases-Data
Storage
This is advantageous as it increases the availability of data at
different sites. Also, now query requests can be processed in
parallel.
However, it has certain disadvantages as well. Data needs to
be constantly updated. Any change made at one site needs to
be recorded at every site that relation is stored or else it may
lead to inconsistency. This is a lot of overhead. Also,
concurrency control becomes way more complex as
concurrent access now needs to be checked over a number of
sites.
Distributed Databases-Data
Storage
2. Fragmentation –
In this approach, the relations are fragmented (i.e., they’re
divided into smaller parts) and each of the fragments is
stored in different sites where they’re required. It must be
made sure that the fragments are such that they can be used
to reconstruct the original relation (i.e, there isn’t any loss of
data).
Fragmentation is advantageous as it doesn’t create copies of
data, consistency is not a problem.
Distributed Databases-Data
Storage
Fragmentation of relations can be done in two ways:
Horizontal fragmentation – Splitting by rows –
The relation is fragmented into groups of tuples so that each
tuple is assigned to at least one fragment.
Vertical fragmentation – Splitting by columns –
The schema of the relation is divided into smaller schemas.
Each fragment must contain a common candidate key so as
to ensure a lossless join.