UNIT VIIth

NERVOUS SYSTEM.
 INTRODUCTION.
 Nervous system is most important aspect of communication of body
systems & external environment.
 Nervous system consist of Brain, Spinal cord & Peripheral Nerves.
 It controls important aspect of body functions with Endocrine system
to maintain Homeostasis.
 Nervous system stimulation provides an immediate response while
Endocrine activity is the main, slower, more prolonged & precise
response.
 Voluntary & involuntary functions of Nervous system enables rapid
communication between different parts of body.
 Response to changes in internal environment regulates involuntary
functions while changes in external environment by voluntary activities.
 Parts of Nervous System.
 For descriptive purpose Nervous system can be
grouped as:-
1. Central Nervous System (C.N.S.)
 Including Brain & Spinal Cord.
2. The Peripheral Nervous System (P.N.S.)
 It consists of all Nerves outside brain & Spinal Cord.
 12 pairs of Cranial Nerves.
 31 pairs of spinal Nerves.
 P.N.S.
 Peripheral Nervous System comprises two functional
parts:-
1. The Sensory Division:-
 Sensory Nerves (Afferent Neurons).
 Sensory Receptors:-
1. Senses:- Sight,Hearing, Smell, Taste & Touch Temperature, Pressure.
2. Internal Environment (Autonomic Part):- Chemo receptors,
Baroreceptors & Osmoreceptors.
2. The Motor Division.
 Motor Nerves (Efferent Neurons)
 Effector Organs.
1. Somatic / Voluntary organs.(Skeletal Muscles)
2. Involuntary/ Autonomic organs. (Cardiac Muscles, Smooth muscles &
Glands)
 Neurons.
 Nervous system consist of a vast number of excitable cells
(neurons) supported by a special type of connective tissue
(Glial) cells called Neuroglia.
 Each neuron (nerve cell) consist of a cell body & its processes
i.e. Axon & dendrites.
 Neurons can not divide or synthesise chemical energy (ATP)
from other nutrients except glucose so they needs continuous
supply of Oxygen & Glucose for survival.
 Physiological units of Nervous system are Nerve impulses
(Action Potentials) which are a kin to tiny electrical charges.
 Neurons actively conducts nerve impulses with maintaining
initial strength through out their length.
 Properties of Neurons.
1. Irritability:-
 An ability to initiate nerve impulse in response to
stimuli from outside of the body or inside of the body.
2. Conductivity:-
 An ability to conduct nerve impulses from site of
initiation to the receptor site.
 Structure of Neuron.
 Neurons are microscopic with vary in size & shape.
 They consist of Cell body & its Processes.
1. Cell Bodies:-
 Cell bodies forms the Grey matter of nervous system & found at
the periphery of the brain & at the center of the Spinal cord.
 Group of cell bodies are called as Nuclei in CNS & Ganglia in
PNS except Basal Ganglia (situated within the Cerebrum).
2. Axons & Dendrites:-
 These are extensions from the cell bodies & forms White
Matter of Nervous System.
 Axon.
 Axons founds deep in the brain & at the periphery of the
spinal cord.
 Groups of Axon in Brain are called as Tracts &
Nerves/Nerve fibers at outside the brain & spinal cord.
 Each Neuron has only one Axon carrying nerve
impulses from cell body to the periphery.
 Axons are longer than dendrites some times as long as
100 c.m.
 Structure of Axon.
 The membrane of Axon enclosing the cytoplasmic extension of the
cell body is called as Axolemma.
 Axons of peripheral nerves are surrounded by a myelin sheath.(Series
of Schwann cells arranged along the length of the Axon)
 Schwann cell plasma membrane covers Axons by multiple concentric
layers & in between plasma membrane there is small amount of Fatty
substance called as Myelin.
 The outermost Schwann cell plasma membrane is called as
Neurilemma.
 There are tiny areas of exposed Axolemma between adjacent
Schwann cells called as Node of Ranvier assisting rapid transmission
of impulses in myelinated neurons.
 Postganglionic fibers & small fibers in CNS are non myelinated.
 Speed of transmission of nerve impulses is slower in non myelinated
neuron than that of myelinated one.
 Dendrites.
 The Dendrites are many short processes than
receives & carry incoming impulses towards cell
body.
 These are structurally similar to axons but are
shorter & branching.
 In motor neurons they forms part of Synapse & in
sensory neurons they forms sensory receptors
responding to specific stimuli.
 Action Potential.
 Nerve impulses are initiated by stimulation of sensory nerve
endings or by passage of an impulse or action (Movement
of ions across cell membrane).
 In a resting state the nerve cell membrane is polarized by
positive charge out side & negative inside the membrane.
(Resting membrane potential).
 The principle ions involved are Na+ main extracelluar cation
& K+ main intracellular cation.
 There is tendency of ions to diffuse along their
concentration gradient.
 When Nerve cell is stimulated cell membrane permeability
for these ions is changed & Na+ floods into neuron from
extracelluar fluid causing depolarization & action potential
is created.
 Action Potential continued…..
 Depolarization is very rapid & nerve impulse is conducted
along the entire length of neuron in few milliseconds.
 Nerve impulse is conducted from point of stimulation to
distal part of neuron (one way) because of refractory period
during which re stimulation is impossible.
 Refractory period is period required re polarization i.e.
K+ions floods out from neuron to return resting potential by
expelling Na+from the cell (Sodium Potassium pump).
 In myelinated neuron myelin sheath insulates movement of
ions so electrical changes across the membrane can occur at
node of Ranvier only.
 Action Potential continued…..
 When an impulse occurs at one node depolarization passes
along the myelin sheath to the next node so that the flow of
current appears to leap from one node to the next this is
called as Saltatory conduction.
 The speed of conduction depends on the diameter of the
neuron (Larger the diameter faster the conduction).
 Myelinated fibers conduct impulses faster than non
myelinated fibers because Saltatory conduction is faster
than simple propagation.
 The fastest fibers can conduct impulse to e.g. skeletal
muscles at a rate of 130 meters/second while the slowest
impulse travels at 0.5 meters/second.
 Types of Nerves.
 Sensory or Afferent Nerves:-
 These nerves carry nerve impulses from sensory
receptors to the Spinal cord and /or Brain.
 Motor / Efferent Nerves:-
 These originate in the brain, spinal cord & Autonomic
ganglia and transmit impulses to the Effector organs.
 Mixed Nerves:-
 Outside the Spinal cord when Sensory & motor nerves
are enclosed within the same sheath of connective tissue
they are called as Mixed Nerves.
 Sensory Receptors.
 These are specialized sensory nerve endings which responds to
different stimuli in/outside of the body.
1. Somatic/Cutaneous/Common Senses:-
 These originate in Skin & are fine branching filament without myelin
sheath.
 Examples are Pain, Touch, Heat, Cold & pressure.
2. Proprioceptor Senses:-
 These originates in Muscles & joint and contributes to the
maintenance of Balance & Posture.
3. Special Senses:-
 These are Sight, Hearing, Balance, Smell & Taste.
4. Autonomic afferent Nerves:-
 These originates in Internal organs, Glands, & tissues (Baroreceptors,
Chemoreceptors) and are associated with reflex regulation of
involuntary activity & Visceral Pain.
 Motor Nerves
 Motor Efferent Nerves are of two types:-
1. Somatic Nerves:-
 Somatic nerves involved in voluntary & reflex skeletal
muscle contraction.
2. Autonomic Nerves:-
 There are two types i.e. Sympathetic &
Parasympathetic Nerves.
 These are involved in Cardiac & Smooth muscles
contraction & Glandular secretions.
 The Synapse & Neurotransmitters.
 Nerve impulses are transported from site of origin to destination
by more than one neurons.
 There is no any physical contact between these two adjacent
neurons this gap (point) at which nerve impulses pass from one
neuron to another is called as Synapse.
 Presynaptic neuron at its free end break up into small branches
terminating with small swelling called as Synaptic Knobs or
Terminal Boutons.
 Terminal Boutons are in close proximity to the dendrites & cell
body of post synaptic neurons & the space between them is
called as Synaptic Cleft.
 Synaptic knobs at their ends has spherical synaptic vesicles
containing chemicals which released into synaptic clefts are
called as Neurotransmitters.
 The Synapse & Neurotransmitters Continued…
 Neurotransmitters are synthesized by nerve cells & actively
transported along the axon to store in the synaptic vesicles.
 These are released by exocytosis in response to the action
potential & diffuse across the synaptic clefts.
 Neurotransmitters act effectors organ on specific receptors
sites at the post synaptic membranes.
 As their action is short lived they are inactivated or
reabsorbed in to synaptic knobs immediately after
stimulation to post synaptic nerve or effectors organ
 Usually neurotransmitters are excitatory effect at the
synapse but some times these are inhibitory.
 Neurotransmitters.
 Neurotransmitters in brain & spinal cord includes:-
1. Nor adrenaline (Nor epinephrine). 6. Dopamine.
2. Adrenaline (Epinephrine). 7. Serotonin.
3. Acetylcholine 8. Histamine.
4. GABA (Gamma Amino butyric Acid).
5. Enkephalins, endorphins & substance P have
specialized role in transmission of pain signals.
 Synapse at skeletal muscles (In between somatic nerve
& skeletal muscles) are called as Neuromuscular
Junction.
 Neurotransmitters Continued...
 Neurotransmitters of peripheral nervous system includes:-
a. Somatic nerve (Motor) Acetylcholine.
b. Autonomic Nerves:-
1. Sympathetic/Adrenergic:-
1. Acetylcholine in synapse of ganglion.
2. Nor adrenalin at smooth muscles. (Heart glands).
2. Sympathetic /Cholinergic:-
1. Acetylcholine in synapse of ganglion.
2. Acetylcholine at sweat glands, Blood vessels in skeletal muscles & skin.
3. Sympathetic / Splanchnic:-
1. Acetylcholine Adrenal medulla Adrenalin & Nor-
adrenalin in blood.
4. Parasympathetic:-
1. Acetylcholine in ganglionic synapse & at smooth muscles (Heart, glands)