Networks ( 9 hours)

3.1.1- Identify different types of networks.

3.1.2-Outline the importance of standards in the construction of networks.
3.1.3 - Describe how communication over networks is broken down into different layers.
3.1.4 - Identify the technologies required to provide a VPN.
3.1.5 - Evaluate the use of a VPN.
3.1.6 - Define the terms: protocol, data packet.
3.1.7 - Explain why protocols are necessary.
3.1.8 - Explain why the speed of data transmission across a network can vary.
3.1.9 - Explain why compression of data is often necessary when transmitting across a network.
3.1.10 - Outline the characteristics of different transmission media.
3.1.11 - Explain how data is transmitted by packet switching.
3.1.12 - Outline the advantages and disadvantages of wireless networks.
3.1.13 - Describe the hardware and software components of a wireless network.
3.1.14 - Describe the characteristics of wireless networks.
3.1.15 Describe the different methods of network security.
3.1.16 - Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of each method of network security.
 Standards in the construction
of networks
Standards are necessary in networking in order to ensure that all network hardware
communicates with the other pieces of hardware without any issues.

Through the use of the OSI layer model if any standards change then the rules set out can easily
be changed without having to rewrite the complete rule set.
Standards in the
construction of
networks- OSI -7
layers-open
system
interconnectivity
in a network
between sender
and reciever
Application Layer
Manipulation of data(information) in various ways is done in this
layer which enables user or software to get access to the
network. Services provided by this layer E-Mail, File transfer, ,
directory services, etc.It contains a variety of protocols that are
commonly needed by users. Examples of application layer
protocols: HTTP(HyperText Transfer Protocol)
File Transfer Protocol(FTP),
Trivial File Transfer Protocol(TFTP),
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol(SMTP),
TELNET- remote connection to server
Domain Name System(DNS) Internet's system for mapping
alphabetic names to numeric Internet Protocol (IP) addresses like a
phone book maps a person's name to a phone number
Session Layer -
Communication
The Session Layer allows users on different machines to establish
synchronization between active communication sessions between them.
Session layer manages and synchronize the conversation between two
different applications.

By adding into stream of data. Example: If a system is sending a file of 800

pages, adding checkpoints after every 50 pages is recommended. This
ensures that 50 page unit is successfully received and acknowledged. This is
beneficial at the time of crash as if a crash happens at page number 110;
there is no need to retransmit 1 to100 pages.
Transport Layer
1.Service Point Addressing: service point address is port address. This
layer gets the message to the correct process on the computer unlike
Network Layer, which gets each packet to the correct computer.
2.Segmentation and Reassembling: A message is divided into segments;
each segment contains sequence number, which enables this layer in
reassembling the message. Message is reassembled correctly upon arrival at
the destination and replaces packets which were lost in transmission.
3.Connection Control: It includes 2 types:
1. Connectionless Transport Layer : Each segment is considered as an independent
packet and delivered to the transport layer at the destination machine. User
Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a simpler, connectionless Internet protocol wherein
error-checking and recovery services are not required.
2. Connection Oriented Transport Layer : Before delivering packets, connection is
made with transport layer at the destination machine. Requires an established
connection to transmit data (connection should be closed once
transmission is complete)e.g tcp transmission communication protocol

4.Error Control: Error Control is performed end to end in this layer to ensure
that the complete message arrives at the receiving transport layer without
any error. Error Correction is done through retransmission.
Network Layer
1.It translates logical network address into physical address. Concerned with
circuit, message or packet switching.
2.Routers and gateways operate in the network layer. Mechanism is provided
by Network Layer for routing the packets to final destination.

3.Breaks larger packets into small packets.

Data Link Layer
The main task of the data link layer is to transform a raw transmission
facility into a line that appears free of undetected transmission errors to the
network layer. It accomplishes this task by having the sender break up the
input data into data frames(typically a few hundred or few thousand bytes)
and transmit the frames sequentially. If the service is reliable, the receiver
confirms correct receipt of each frame by send back an acknowledgement
frame.
The data link layer data frame contains information about the packet no,
senders address, recievers address and an error check such as a parity
check.
Physical Layer
Physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI reference model. It is responsible
for sending bits from one computer to another. This layer is not concerned
with the meaning of the bits and deals with the setup of physical connection
to the network and with transmission and reception of signals.
1.Representation of Bits: Data in this layer consists of stream of bits. Data
Rate: This layer defines the rate of transmission which is the number of bits
per second.
2.Interface: The physical layer defines the transmission interface between
devices and transmission medium.
3.Topologies: Devices must be connected using the following topologies:
Mesh, Star, Ring and Bus.
4.Transmission Modes: Physical Layer defines the direction of transmission
between two devices: Simplex, Half Duplex, Full Duplex.
 Difference in LAN and VLAN
A virtual LAN, or VLAN, is a group of computers, network printers, network servers, and other network devices
that behave as if they were connected to a single network.
LAN stands for Local Area Network is a group of network devices which allow the
communication between connected devices.
So VLAN stands for Virtual Local Area Network enhances the performance of LANs (Local
Area Networks).
The difference between a traditional broadcast domain(LAN) and one defined by a VLAN is that a LAN is seen as a
distinct physical entity with a router on its boundary. VLANs are similar to LAN as their boundaries are also
defined by a router. However, a VLAN is a logical topology, meaning that the VLAN hosts are not grouped within
the physical confines of a traditional broadcast domain, such as an Ethernet LAN.
If a network is created using hubs, a single LAN is made :
When a VLAN is implemented, its logical topology is independent of the physical topology, such as the LAN wiring.
Each host on the LAN can be assigned a VLAN identification number (ID), and hosts with the same VLAN ID behave
and work as though they are on the same physical network. This means the VLAN traffic is isolated from other
traffic, and therefore all communications remain within the VLAN.
Difference in LAN and VLAN
LAN and VLAN
LAN and VLAN
Because all devices within the LAN see traffic from all other devices within the domain, the
network can become congested. Broadcasts are stopped only at the router before traffic is sent
across the wide-area network (WAN) cloud. If the network hubs are replaced with switches, you
can create VLANs within the existing physical network, as below:
 Collision & Broadcast domains
Collision domain: To and fro
When a device sends out a message to the network, all other
devices which are included in its collision domain have to pay
attention to it, no matter if it was destined for them or not. This
causes a problem because, in a situation where two devices send
out their messages simultaneously, a collision will occur leading
them to wait and re-transmit their respective messages, one at a
time.
Broadcast Domain – All over the network
When a device sends out a broadcast message, all the devices
present in its broadcast domain have to pay attention to it. This
creates a lot of congestion in the network, commonly called LAN
congestion, which affects the bandwidth of the users present in that
network. More the number of collision domains and the More the
number of broadcast domains, the more efficient is the network
providing better bandwidth to all its users.
VLAN introduction
VLANs logically segment switched networks based on the functions, project teams, or
applications of the organization regardless of the physical location or connections to the
network.
All workstations and servers used by a particular workgroup share the same VLAN,
regardless of the physical connection or location.
 VLAN introduction
A workstation in a VLAN group is restricted to communicating with file servers in the same
VLAN group.
 VLAN introduction
VLANs function by logically segmenting the network into different broadcast domains so
that packets are only switched between ports that are designated for the same VLAN.

Routers in VLAN
topologies provide
broadcast filtering,
security, and
traffic flow
management.
VLAN introduction
VLANs address scalability, security, and network management.
Switches may not bridge any traffic between VLANs, as this would violate the integrity
of the VLAN broadcast domain.
Traffic should only be routed between VLANs.
A VLAN is a broadcast domain created by one or more switches.

Broadcast domains with VLANs and routers

 Broadcast domains with VLANs and
routers
Layer 3 routing allows the router to send packets to the three different broadcast domains.
 VLAN operation
Users attached to the same shared segment, share the bandwidth of that segment.
Each additional user attached to the shared medium means less bandwidth and
deterioration of network performance.
VLANs offer more bandwidth to users than a shared network.
 VLAN operation
Dynamic VLANs allow for membership based on the MAC address of the device connected to
the switch port.
As a device enters the network, it queries a database within the switch for a VLAN
membership.
 VLAN operation
In port-based or port-centric VLAN membership, the port is assigned to a specific VLAN
membership independent of the user or system attached to the port.

All users
of the
same port
must be in
the same
VLAN.
 Benefits of VLANs
The key benefit of VLANs is that they permit the network administrator to organize the LAN
logically instead of physically.
VLAN types
Port-based VLANs
MAC address based VLANs
Protocol based VLANs
VLAN types
The number of VLANs in a switch vary depending on several factors:
 Traffic patterns
 Types of applications
 Network management needs
 Group commonality
 Vlan and subnet – How are they
different?
Whats subnetting?
The practice of dividing a network into two or more networks is called subnetting. Computers that
belong to the same subnet are addressed with an identical most-significant bit-group in their IP
addresses.
VLAN is a logical LAN that contains broadcasts within itself, and only hosts belonged to that VLAN will
see those broadcasts. Subnet is an IP address range of IP addresses that help hosts communicate
over layer 3. VLAN allows us to create different logical and physical networks.
Both deal with segmenting or partitioning a portion of the network.
However,
VLANs - data link layer (OSI layer 2) constructs,
Subnets - network layer (OSI layer 3) IP constructs,
and they address different issues on a network. Although it’s a common practice to create
a one-to-one relationship between a VLAN and subnet, the fact that they are independent
layer 2 and layer 3 constructs adds flexibility when designing a network.
Difference in hub, router and
switch
Difference in hub, router and switch,
repeater
1. Repeater – A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to regenerate the signal over the same network before the signal becomes
too weak or corrupted so as to extend the length to which the signal can be transmitted over the same network. An important point to be
noted about repeaters is that they do no amplify the signal. When the signal becomes weak, they copy the signal bit by bit and regenerate it
at the original strength. It is a 2 port device.
2. Hub – A hub is basically a multiport repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming from different branches, for example, the connector in
star topology which connects different stations. Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected devices. In other words,
collision domain of all hosts connected through Hub remains one. Also, they do not have intelligence to find out best path for data packets
which leads to inefficiencies and wastage. neither A hub is neither a collision domain separator nor a broadcast
domain separator. All the devices connected to a hub are in a single collision and single broadcast
domain. Remember, hubs do not segment a network, they just connect network segments.
3. Bridge – A bridge operates at data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with add on functionality of filtering content by reading the MAC
addresses of source and destination. It is also used for interconnecting two LANs working on the same protocol. It has a single input and
single output port, thus making it a 2 port device.
4. Switch – A switch is a multi port bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost its efficiency(large number of ports imply less traffic) and
performance. Switch is data link layer device. Switch can perform error checking before forwarding data, that makes it very efficient as it does
not forward packets that have errors and forward good packets selectively to correct port only. In other words, switch divides collision
domain of hosts, but broadcast domain remains same. Every port on a switch is in a different collision domain, i.e a
switch is a collision domain separator. So messages that come from devices connected to different
ports never experience a collision. This helps us during designing networks but there is still a problem
with switches. They never break broadcast domains, which means it is not a broadcast domain
separator. All the ports on the switch are still in a single broadcast domain. If a device sends a
broadcast message, it will still cause congestion.
Difference in Bridge and Switch
Bridges and Switches are pretty similar, both operate at the
Data Link layer (Layer 2) and both can filter data so that only the
appropriate segment or host receives a transmission.
Both filter packets based on the physical address (MAC – Media Access
Control – address) of the sender/receiver although newer switches
sometimes include the capabilities of a router and can forward data based
on IP address (operating at the Network Layer) and are referred to as
IP Switches. So the modern IP switches operate on Network layer
and old switches on data link layer
Which is mor superior? Bridge or switch? Switch
Bridges extend the distance capabilities of the network & minimize overall
traffic, Switches give filtering capabilities to create multiple, smaller
virtual LAN’s out of one large LAN for easier management/administration
(VLAN’s).
5. Routers – A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP
addresses. Router is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect LANs and
WANs together and have a dynamically updating routing table based on which they make
decisions on routing the data packets. Router divide broadcast domains of hosts connected
through it. This is a saviour!! like a switch it routes data packets based on their IP
addresses. Router is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect LANs and
WANs together and have a dynamically updating routing table based on which they make
decisions on routing the data packets. Router divide broadcast domains of hosts connected
through it.

Overall,repeaters and bridges differ from

hubs and switches in terms of the
number of ports
A repeater does not break collision and
broadcast domains –just prevents
attenuation.
A bridge breaks only collision
domains.
Networking
The generic term node or host refers to any device on a network
Data transfer rate The speed with which data is moved from one place on a network to
another
Data transfer rate is a key issue in computer networks

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 Networking
Computer networks have opened up an entire frontier in the world of computing called the client/server
model

Figure 15.1 Client/Server interaction

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Networking
File server A computer that stores and manages files for multiple users on a network
Web server A computer dedicated to responding to requests (from the browser client) for web
pages

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Types of Networks
Various configurations, called topologies, have been
used to administer LANs
◦ Ring topology A configuration that connects all nodes in
a closed loop on which messages travel in one direction
◦ Star topology A configuration that centers around one
node to which all others are connected and through which
all messages are sent
◦ Bus topology All nodes are connected to a single
communication line that carries messages in both
directions

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 Types of Networks
Wide-area network (WAN) A network that
connects two or more local-area networks
over a potentially large geographic distance
Often one particular node on a LAN is set up to
serve as a gateway to handle all communication
going between that LAN and other networks
Metropolitan-area network (MAN) The communication infrastructures that have been
developed in and around large cities

Communication between networks is called

internetworking
The Internet, as we know it today, is essentially
the ultimate wide-area network, spanning the
entire globe
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Internet Connections
Internet backbone A set of high-speed networks that carry Internet traffic
These networks are provided by companies such as AT&T, GTE, and IBM
Internet service provider (ISP) A company that provides other companies or individuals with
access to the Internet

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Internet Connections
There are various technologies available that you can use to
connect a home computer to the Internet
◦ A phone modem converts computer data into an analog audio
signal for transfer over a telephone line, and then a modem at the
destination converts it back again into data
◦ A digital subscriber line (DSL) uses regular copper phone lines to
transfer digital data to and from the phone company’s central
office
◦ A cable modem uses the same line that your cable TV signals come
in on to transfer the data back and forth

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Internet Connections
Broadband A connection in which transfer speeds
are faster than 128 bits per second
◦ DSL connections and cable modems are broadband
connections
◦ The speed for downloads (getting data from the Internet
to your home computer) may not be the same as uploads
(sending data from your home computer to the Internet)

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 Packet Switching
To improve the efficiency of transferring information over a
shared communication line, messages are divided into fixed-sized,
numbered packets
Network devices called routers are used to direct packets
between networks
Figure 15.4
Messages
sent by
packet
switching

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Open Systems
Proprietary system A system that uses
technologies kept private by a particular
commercial vendor
One system couldn’t communicate with another, leading
to the need for
Interoperability The ability of software and
hardware on multiple machines and from multiple
commercial vendors to communicate
Leading to
Open systems Systems based on a common model
of network architecture and a suite of protocols
used in its implementation
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 Open Systems
The International
Organization for
Standardization (ISO)
established the Open
Systems Interconnection
(OSI) Reference Model
Each layer deals with a
particular aspect of network
communication
Figure 15.5 The layers of the OSI Reference Model

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 Network Protocols
Network protocols are layered such that each one relies on the protocols that underlie it
Sometimes referred to as a protocol stack

Figure 15.6 Layering of key network protocols

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TCP/IP
TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol
TCP software breaks messages into packets, hands them off to the IP software for delivery, and then orders
and reassembles the packets at their destination

IP stands for Internet Protocol

IP software deals with the routing of packets through the maze of interconnected networks to their final
destination

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TCP/IP (cont.)
UDP stands for User Datagram Protocol
◦ It is an alternative to TCP
◦ The main difference is that TCP is highly reliable, at the cost of decreased performance, while UDP is less
reliable, but generally faster

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High-Level Protocols
Other protocols build on the foundation established by the TCP/IP protocol suite
◦ Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
◦ File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
◦ Telnet
◦ Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (http)

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 Roles of a Computers and devices in a networked
world
 Client: Piece of computer hardware/software that accesses services made available
by server, by sending requests to server
 Server: Program/host computer that fulfils requests from client programs or
computers across network and shares info to clients
 Email server: Message transfer agent that transfers electronic messages from one
computer to another in a network
 DNS (Domain Name Server): Server that translates web addresses written in letters
(more memorable for humans) to the numeric IP (Internet Protocol) address
 Router: Connects networks together to forward data packets between networks,
deciding where to send information so it is received by one network and then sent to
another until it reaches its destination
 Firewall: Controls incoming and outgoing network traffic, determining what data
packets should be allowed through, based on a rule set. Needed to protect integrity of
client computer.
 VPN-what is ? And types..
VPNs maintain the same security and management policies as a private network. They are the
most cost effective method of establishing a virtual point-to-point connection between remote
users and an enterprise customer's network. There are three main types of VPNs.
Access VPNs—Provide remote access to an enterprise customer's intranet or extranet over a
shared infrastructure using analog, dial, ISDN, digital subscriber line (DSL), mobile IP, and cable
technologies to securely connect mobile users, telecommuters, and branch offices.
Intranet VPNs—Intranet VPN differs from extranet VPNs in that they allow access only to the
enterprise customer's employees over a shared infrastructure using dedicated connections
Extranet VPNs— Extranet VPNs differ from intranet VPNs in that they allow access to users
outside the enterprise to an enterprise customer's network over a shared infrastructure
Types of VPNs –Remote and Site
2 Site
Remote Access VPN:
Purpose: secure connection and providing resources as if
users were onsite but actually are from remote location.
Users: Usually for small groups of users to work from home
or while travelling.
Connection type: The connection is initiated by the remote
user using VPN client software, which establishes an
encrypted tunnel to the VPN server located within the private
network.
Security: Encrypted traffic between the remote user and the
VPN server ensures confidentiality and data integrity.
Site to Site VPN:
Purpose: also known as a router-to-router VPN, connects entire
networks or multiple sites together over the internet securely. It allows
different physical locations to communicate with each other as if they
were part of the same private network. For examples all the Bata shoe
networks
Users: is for interconnecting networks rather than individual users using
routers or dedicated VPN appliances.
Connection type: The VPN tunnel is established between the routers or
VPN gateways at each location. The devices handle the encryption and
decryption of traffic between the sites.
Security: all traffic passing through the VPN tunnel is encrypted and
protected.
 Identify the technologies
required to provide a VPN.
VPN tunneling involves establishing and maintaining a logical network connection (that may
contain intermediate hops). On this connection, packets constructed in a specific VPN protocol
format are encapsulated within some other base or carrier protocol, then transmitted between
VPN client and server, and finally de-encapsulated on the receiving side. Before setting up a VPN,
the type of network protocol has to be chosen. There are four to consider:
SSL (Secure Socket Layer) - For very small businesses, as the VPN is set up via an internet
browser.Unlike ipsec, it does not need to be installed on client computers- gives remote access
to users for client /server & web applications .
Open VPN – cheap-this VPN is based on open source SSL code and as its name suggests, the
code can be seen – and potentially hacked – by anyone.point 2 point or site 2 site connections
created.
PPTP (Point-to-Point Tunnelling Protocol) - This is the latest type of VPN- supported natively by
Windows, Mac OS X and mobile operating systems, which makes it ideal for BYOD in which
personal data devices need to be secured.
IPsec (Internet Protocol Security) and L2TP (Layer 2 Tunnelling Protocol) - These VPNs are more
secure than PPTP but are more complex to set up.l2tp does not encrypt data on vpn but l2tp
does. So to prevent hacking ipsec is implemented alongwith l2tp.
Difference in VPN and Extranet
VPN authenticates the sender before (establishing the tunnel).
VPN access is always encrypted, whereas extranet has limited encryption;
VPN transmission is always encrypted;

VPN users have access to everything whereas extranet users only have
access to (enabled) specific services

External extension to a LAN- Part of a network that uses internet

protocols to allow controlled access by specific users to LAN or WAN. e.g.
business wants to share some data/ information with clients or partners
but not all, so extends part of network (extranet) available for access but
with security/ privacy measures (e.g. firewall) so outsiders cannot access
secure data
Difference in VPN and Extranet
VPN Allows clients from distant locations to connect, that otherwise
wouldn't be able to connect with LAN (too far for cables) or WAN (too far
for signal to be picked up with the help of VPN technologies for
authentication and encryption.
So both allow remote access but for entirely different purpose and in
different way as explained.
Differences are :
 VPN access and transmission are always encrypted, whereas extranet
has limited encryption
 VPN users have access to everything whereas extranet users only
have access to specific services
Protocol and data packet
Define protocol and data
A protocol is a set of rules governing communications and packets are units of data made into a
single package that travel on network on a given path.
Networking protocols specify what types of data can be sent, how each type of message will be
identified, where in the packet header or trailer each type of required information will be
placed, and more.
Packets are created at the machine sending the information. The application generating the data
on the sending machine passes the data to a protocol stack running on that machine. The
protocol stack breaks the data down into chunks and wraps each chunk in one or more wrappers
that will allow the packets to be reassembled in the correct order at the destination. The
protocol stack on the sending machine then passes the packets to the Ethernet hardware:
the NIC (Network Interface Card). The Ethernet hardware adds its own wrapper (the Ethernet
header and trailer) to each packet to direct it to the correct destination on the local network.
 Explain why the speed of data transmission across a
network can vary.
1.The computer processor speed-a computer with dual Pentium IV processor will most likely get faster connectivity
compared to one with a Pentium III or Pentium II processor;
2.Internet speed will depend on distance that the data travels,
3.How many servers it has to go through and
4.The different speeds of each server (the shorter the cables or the closer the computers are to the router the faster the
connection);
5.heavy traffic on the network (ISPs are allocated a certain amount of bandwidth which is shared among all the
incoming and outgoing connections);
6.Malware, Spyware and Viruses hinder the operation of programs, slows down the speed of connectivity;
7.Modem speed- can slow down the speed at which data is transmitted;
8.hardware problems- can seriously reduce the speed of the data being processed by your system;
9.software problems;
10. memory available- each thing you open is using RAM memory and has to write this to the disk and the more memory
you are using up to open programs the less memory there is a available to receive data etc.
 Explain why compression of data is often
necessary when transmitting across a
network.

A network has limited bandwidth, in that only a certain number of bits can be push through it at any one time
without losing data.
To reduce the use of bandwidth in a network, and hence ensure that the network does not becomes
congested, redundancies in data can be removed. This process is called compression.
Lossy data compression: This type of compression removes the unnecessary data. It is mainly used in pictures,
example: conversion of a picture from GIF to JPEG and conversion of an audio file from WAV to MP3.You cant
get original file back.
Lossless data compression: This type of compression allows you to recreate the original file. It involves
breaking the original file into a smaller version while it is transmitted or stored in a way that when it reaches
its destiny it can be put back together and used as before. Example of lossless data compression is when you
zip an amount of files into a file (usually done with 7-zip).
ASN(Autonomous System
Numbers)
Within the Internet, an autonomous system (AS) is a collection of connected Internet Protocol
(IP) routing prefixes under the control of one or more network operators on behalf of a single
administrative entity or domain that presents a common, clearly defined routing policy to the
Internet.
Multiple organizations can run Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) using private AS numbers to an
ISP that connects all those organizations to the Internet. Even though there may be multiple
autonomous systems supported by the ISP, the Internet only sees the routing policy of the ISP.
That ISP must have an officially registered autonomous system number (ASN).
A unique ASN is allocated to each AS for use in BGP routing. AS numbers are important because
the ASN uniquely identifies each network on the Internet.
Earlier AS numbers were defined as 16-bit integers. Now they are in 32 bits so this allows more
assignments.
 Peer to peer network

Peer-to-peer (P2P) computing or networking is a distributed application architecture that

partitions tasks or work loads between peers. Peers are equally privileged, equipotent participants
in the application. They are said to form a peer-to-peer network of nodes.
Peers make a portion of their resources, such as processing power, disk storage or network
bandwidth, directly available to other network participants, without the need for central
coordination by servers or stable hosts.Peers are both suppliers and consumers of resources, in
contrast to the traditional client-server model in which the consumption and supply of resources is
divided. Emerging collaborative P2P systems are going beyond the era of peers doing similar things
while sharing resources, and are looking for diverse peers that can bring in unique resources and
capabilities to a virtual community thereby empowering it to engage in greater tasks beyond those
that can be accomplished by individual peers, yet that are beneficial to all the peers.
Examples of p2p: Peerspace is a peer-to-peer marketplace for booking space for events, meetings
and productions, Napster
BGP(Border Gateway Protocol)
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) is a standardized exterior gateway protocol designed to exchange
routing and reachability information among autonomous systems (AS) on the Internet.The
protocol is often classified as a path vector protocol but is sometimes also classed as a distance-
vector routing protocol. The Border Gateway Protocol makes routing decisions based on paths,
network policies, or rule-sets configured by a network administrator and is involved in making
core routing decisions.
BGP may be used for routing within an autonomous system. Then this application is referred to
as Interior Border Gateway Protocol. In contrast, the Internet application of the protocol may be
referred to as Exterior Border Gateway Protocol, External BGP.
 MIME Types

• Related to the idea of network protocols

and standardization is the concept of a
file’s MIME type
– MIME stands for Multipurpose Internet Mail
Extension
– Based on a document’s MIME type, an
application program can decide how to deal
with the data it is given
 Numerical

• One million bits = 1 Megabits per second (Mbit/s or Mb/s)

• Megabits per second (Mbit/s or Mb/s.) are units of measurement for network
bandwidth. Each Mbps represents the capacity to transfer 1 million bits each
second.

• Megabytes per second (MBps) = above Mb/8 or *0.125

• Example, AN ANIMATION of 1920 x 1720 P takes 5 million bits. Determine the

minimum network bandwidth that must be present to enable this streaming in
Megabytes per second (MBps)

• Answer is 5 Mb/s= 5/8 or 5 * 0.125 MBps

 Firewalls

• Firewall A machine and its software that

serve as a special gateway to a network,
protecting it from inappropriate access
– Filters the network traffic that comes in,
checking the validity of the messages as
much as possible and perhaps denying some
messages altogether
– Enforces an organization’s access control
policy
 Firewalls

Figure 15.8 A firewall protecting a LAN 15-64

 Network Addresses

• Hostname A unique identification that

specifies a particular computer on the
Internet
For example
matisse.csc.villanova.edu
condor.develocorp.com
 Network Addresses

• Network software translates a hostname

into its corresponding IP address
For example
205.39.145.18
 Network Addresses

• An IP address can be split into

– network address, which specifies a specific network
– host number, which specifies a particular machine in
that network

Figure 15.9
An IP address is
stored in four
bytes

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 Domain Name System

• A hostname consists of the computer name

followed by the domain name
• csc.villanova.edu is the domain name
– A domain name is separated into two or more
sections that specify the organization, and possibly a
subset of an organization, of which the computer is a
part
– Two organizations can have a computer named the
same thing because the domain name makes it clear
which one is being referred to

15-68
 Domain Name System

• Organizations based in countries other than the

United States use a top-level domain that
corresponds to their two-letter country codes

Figure 15.11
Some of the top-level domain
names based on country codes

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 Domain Name System

• The domain name system (DNS) is

chiefly used to translate hostnames into
numeric IP addresses
– DNS is an example of a distributed database
– If that server can resolve the hostname, it
does so
– If not, that server asks another domain name
server

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VLAN types
An important consideration in defining the size of the
switch and the number of VLANs is the IP addressing
scheme.
Because a one-to-one correspondence between
VLANs and IP subnets is strongly recommended,
there can be no more than 254 devices in any one
VLAN.
It is further recommended that VLANs should not
extend outside of the Layer 2 domain of the
distribution switch.
 Virtual memory
Virtual memory
To expand memory usable by the CPU it is possible to use something called virtual memory
where the most important instructions for the program are stored in the RAM and the less
necessary information is stored in secondary memory (usally the HDD) and then the data is
switched between RAM and virtual memory as it is needed (to swap).

Advantages:
More memory to work with.

Disadvantages:
It is very slow compared to the primary memory
Thrashing can occur. Thrashing is a condition when there is too much data that needs to be
swapped between RAM and virtual memory, and the computer's response time is compromised
.The swapped files are called page files.