CHAPTER SIX

SOURCES AND METHODS

OF DATA COLLECTION
 Contents to be Covered
6.1. Introduction
6.2. Sources of Data
6.2.1. Primary Source of Data
6.2.2. Secondary Sources of Data
6.3. Primary Data Collection Method
6.4. Secondary Data Collection Method
6.5. Qualitative vs Quantitative Data

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 6.1. Introduction
o Researchers conducted in different fields of study can be different in methodology but

every research is based on data, which is analysed and interpreted to get information.
The question however is, from where to get the data and how to get them.
o Collection of data refers to a purposive gathering of information relevant to the subject

matter of the study from the units under investigation.

o Before we rush to examine the methods of data collection, let us see the types of data.

Basically, data can be classified primary and secondary data or qualitative and
quantitative. These classifications are based on the source of data and the nature of the
data respectively.
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 6.2. Sources of Data
 Data can be acquired from different sources. But different sources can be generally be

categorized in two major groups:

 Primary and

 Secondary data sources.

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 6.2.1. Primary Source of Data
 By primary data we mean the data that have been collected originally for the first time.

 Primary data may be the outcome of an original statistical enquiry, measurement of facts.

Ex. data of population census or a count that is undertaken for the first time.
 Primary data are original observations collected by the researcher or his agents for the

first time.
 Primary data is one a researcher collects for a specific purpose of investigating the

research problem at hand.

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Examples of primary sources include finding out first-hand attitudes of a community
towards health services, evaluating a social program, determining the job satisfaction,
commitment, turnover intention of the employees of an organization, and ascertaining the
quality of service provided by a worker and so on.
Advantage of primary data Dis-advantage of primary data
 It enhances the investigators’ understanding of the
It requires maximum
meaning of units in which data are recorded.
 It is more accurate as compared with secondary data.
efforts
 Its leads the investigator Greater details information. It takes time

It is costly
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 6.2.2. Secondary Sources of Data
 Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they refer to the data which have

already been collected and analyzed by some one else.

 Secondary data are collected and used by others.

 Any data that has been collected earlier for some other purpose are secondary data in the

hands of an individual who is using them.

 The use of census data to obtain information on the age–sex structure of a population, the use

of hospital records to find out the morbidity and mortality patterns of a community, the use of
an organization's records to ascertain its activities, and the collection of data from sources
such as magazines, and periodicals to obtain historical and other types of information, are all
classified as secondary sources.
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 Cont’d
Advantage Dis-advantage

It is found more quickly and  It may be out of date

 It may not be adequate

cheaply
 The information does not meet ones specific
Improves an understanding of
needs, since it is collected by others for their
the problem
own purpose, definitions would differ, units
of measurements would differ, and different
time periods may be involved.

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 6.3. Primary Data Collection Method
o There are several methods of collecting primary data. Particularly in surveys and

descriptive researches the important ones are:

 Questionnaires

 Interview method

 Observation method

o The most common means of collecting data are the interview and the questionnaire.

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 6.3.1. Questionnaire

A questionnaire is a type of survey where respondents write answers to questions posed

by the researcher on a question form.

Questionnaires are essentially a specifically noted list of questions that are often defined

as a basic form of acquiring and recording different data or information in relation to a

particular topic of study, which are put together with unambiguous instructions, as well as
adequate spacing for details of administration and answers (Adams & Cox, 2008).
In a questionnaire respondents read the questions, interpret what is expected and then

write down the answers.

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 Cont’d
 The common type of questionnaire involves:

Closed ended or fixed questions where the respondent is required to answer by choosing an

option from a number of given answers, usually by ticking a box or circling an answer. In a
closed question the possible answers are set out in the questionnaire and the respondent or the
investigator ticks the category that best describes the respondent’s answer. Type of questions
used to generate statistics in quantitative research e.g. multiple choice questions, scale questions
Open ended questionnaire differs in that it allows the respondent to formulate and record their

answers in their own words. These are more qualitative and can produce detailed answers to
complex problems. In an open-ended question the possible responses are not given. The
respondent writes down the answers in his/her words .
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 Cont’d
Dis-advantage:
Advantage:
 Limited answers only can be given.
 Can reach a large number of
 Low response rate.
people.
 Application is limited: for respondents that can read and
 Lower costs write. It cannot be used on a population that is illiterate,
 Respondents have adequate very young, very old or handicapped.
 Opportunity to clarify issues is lacking
time to give well thought out
 The response to a question may be influenced by the
answers.
response to other questions: leading questions
 It offers greater anonymity.
 A response cannot be supplemented with other
information
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 Contents of a questionnaire
There are three portions of a questionnaire

 The cover letter (It should explain to the respondent the purpose of the
survey and motivate him to reply truthfully and quickly.
The instructions (It explains how to complete the survey and where to

return it.
The questions

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 Cont’d
The cover letter should very briefly:
 Introduce you and the institution you are representing;

 Describe in two or three sentences the main objectives of the study;

 Explain the relevance of the study;

 Convey any general instructions;

 Indicate that participation in the study is voluntary

 Assure respondents of the anonymity of the information provided by them;

 Provide a contact number in case they have any questions;

 Give a return address for the questionnaire and a deadline for its return;

 Thank them for their participation in the study.

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 Types of Questionnaires

1. Mail Questionnaires(Sent through mail).

There are many advantages to mail surveys.

 They are relatively inexpensive to administer.

 They allow the respondent to fill it out at their own convenience.

There are some disadvantages as well.

 Response rates from mail surveys are often very low.

 Mail questionnaires are not the best vehicles for asking for detailed written

responses.
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 Cont’d

2. Self –administered Questionnaires (Collective administration):

A sample of respondents is brought together and asked to respond to a structured

sequence of questions. One of the best ways of administering a questionnaire is to obtain a

captive audience such as students in a classroom, people attending a meeting, participants
in a program or people assembled in one place.
This ensures a very high response rate as you will find few people refuse to participate in

your study. It is the quickest way of collecting data, ensures a very high response rate and
saves you money on postage.

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 Cont’d
3.Household Drop-off :
In this approach, a researcher goes to the respondent's home or business and gives the

instrument to the respondent.

Sometimes you can administer a questionnaire in a public place such as a shopping center,

health center, hospital, school or pub. Of course this depends upon the type of study
population you are looking for and where it is likely to be found.
Usually the purpose of the study is explained to potential respondents as they approach and

their participation in the study is requested. A part from being slightly more time consuming,
this method has all the advantages of administering a questionnaire collectively.

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 Questionnaire Construction/ Wording Decision
 Keep the language simple.

 Keep the questions short.

 Keep the number of questions to a minimum.

 Limit each question to one idea or concept.

 Do not ask leading questions.

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 6.3.2. Schedules
o Schedules are questionnaires filled by the enumerators.

 Advantages:

 The enumerator can explain the significance of the inquiry and the questions in the

questionnaire personally to the informants and thus ensuring collection of accurate and reliable
information.
 Limitations:

 The enumerator might be biased may and may not enter the answers given by the respondents

truthfully.
 Where there are many enumerators, they may interpret various terms in the questionnaire

according to their own understanding of the terms.

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 6.3.3. Interviews
An interview involves an interviewer reading questions to respondents and recording their

answers. The interview is like a conversation and has the purpose of obtaining information
relevant to a particular research topic.
When interviewing a respondent, you, as a researcher, have the freedom to decide the format and

content of questions to be asked of your respondents, select the wording of your questions,
decide the way you want to ask them and choose the order in which they are to be asked.
o Interview can be conducted through:

 Face-to Face Interviews /Personal Interviews

 Telephone interview

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 Types of Interview
1. Structured interviews
In a structured interview the researcher asks a predetermined and ‘standardized’ or identical set of

questions, using the same wording and order of questions as specified in the interview schedule. You
read out each question and then record the response on a standardized schedule, usually with pre-
coded answers.
While there is social interaction between you and the participant, such as the preliminary

explanations that you will need to provide, you should read out the questions exactly as written and
in the same tone of voice so that you do not indicate any bias.
One of the main advantages of the structured interview is that it provides uniform information, which

assures the comparability of data. Structured interviewing requires fewer interviewing skills than
does unstructured interviewing.
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 Cont’d
2. Sem-structured Interviews
In semi-structured interviews the researcher will have a list of themes and questions to be

covered, although these may vary from interview to interview.

This means that you may omit some questions in particular interviews, given a specific

organizational context that is encountered in relation to the research topic. The order of
questions may also be varied depending on the flow of the conversation.
On the other hand, additional questions may be required to explore your research question

and objectives given the nature of events within particular organizations.

You may formulate questions and raise issues on the spur of the moment, depending upon

what occurs to you in the context of the discussion

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 Cont’d
3. Unstructured Interviews
Unstructured interviews are informal. You would use these to explore in depth a general area in

which you are interested. There is no predetermined list of questions to work through in this
situation, although you need to have a clear idea about the aspect or aspects that you want to
explore.
The interviewee is given the opportunity to talk freely about events, behavior and beliefs in relation

to the topic area, so that this type of interaction is sometimes called ‘non-directive’.
It has been labelled as an informant interview since it is the interviewee’s perceptions that guide

the conduct of the interview.

In comparison, a participant interview is one where the interviewer directs the interview and the

interviewee responds to the questions of the researcher (Easterby- Smith et al. 2008; Robson 2002).
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 Cont’d
Advantage Dis-advantage

 High response rate  Applicable for limited sample only.

 Can collect complex information  Can be difficult to analyses Interviewing is

 It is useful for collecting in-depth information. time consuming and expensive.

 Information can be supplemented: non-verbal  The quality of data depends upon the

reactions quality of the interviewer.

 Questions can be explained.  The quality of data may vary when many

 Interviewing has a wider application: children, interviewers are used.

the handicapped, illiterate or very old.  The researcher may introduce his/her bias.

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 6.3.4. Observation Method

Observation is a purposeful, systematic and selective way of watching and listening to an

interaction or phenomenon/situation as it takes place.

When you are more interested in the behavior than in the perceptions of individuals, or

when subjects are so involved in the interaction that they are unable to provide objective
information about it, observation is the best approach to collect the required information.
The technique is particularly useful for discovering how individuals or groups of people

or animals behave, act or react.

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 Types of observation
1. Participant observation
Is when you, as a researcher, participate in the activities of the group being observed in the

same manner as its members, with or without their knowing that they are being observed.
This enables researchers to share their experiences by not merely observing what is

happening but also feeling it.

For example, you might want to examine the reactions of the general population towards

people in wheelchairs. You can study their reactions by sitting in a wheelchair yourself. Or
you might want to study the life of prisoners and pretend to be a prisoner in order to do this.

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 Cont’d

2. Non-participant observation
Is when you, as a researcher, do not get involved in the activities of the group but remain

a passive observer, watching and listening to its activities and drawing conclusions from
this.
For example, you might want to study the functions carried out by nurses in a hospital.

As an observer, you could watch, follow and record the activities as they are performed.
After making a number of observations, conclusions could be drawn about the functions
nurses carry out in the hospital.

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 Cont’d
Advantage Dis-Advantage
 Can understand meanings behind actions.  Time consuming.

 Behavior can be observed in its natural  possibility of observer bias.

environment, the subject is undisturbed.  Can only study a small group.

 The  Cannot make generalizations

information obtained under this
method relates to what is currently  Moral, legal and injury risks associated with

happening this method.

 Independent of respondents’ willingness  Hawthorne effect: aware of being observed

 The interpretations drawn from observations

 Suitable for those who are not capable of
may vary from observer to observer
giving verbal reports of their feelings.
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 6.4. Secondary Data Collection Method
So far we have discussed the primary sources of data collection where the required data was

collected either by you or by someone else for the specific purpose you have in mind. There
are occasions when your data have already been collected by someone else and you need only
to extract the required information for the purpose of your study. Such data are known as
secondary data
Secondary data include both raw data and published summaries. Most organizations collect

and store a variety of data to support their operations: for example, payroll details, copies of
letters, minutes of meetings and accounts of sales of goods or services. Quality daily
newspapers contain a wealth of data, including reports about takeover bids and companies’
share prices.
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 Cont’d
Both qualitative and quantitative research studies use secondary sources as a method of data

collection. In qualitative research you usually extract descriptive (historical and current) and
narrative information and in quantitative research the information extracted is categorical or
numerical. The following are some of secondary data collection methods.
1. Government or semi-government publications
There are many government and semi-government organizations that collect data on a regular

basis in a variety of areas and publish it for use by members of the public and interest groups.
Some common examples are the census, vital statistics registration, labor force surveys, health
reports, economic forecasts and demographic information.

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 Cont’d
2. Earlier research
For some topics, an enormous number of research studies that have already been done by

others can provide you with the required information.

3. Personal records
Some people write historical and personal records (e.g. diaries) that may provide the

information you need.

4. Mass media
Reports published in newspapers, in magazines, on the Internet, and so on, may be another

good source of data.

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 Problems with using data from secondary sources
Validity and reliability: For example, information obtained from a census is likely to be
more valid and reliable than that obtained from most personal diaries.
Personal bias – The use of information from personal diaries, newspapers and magazines
may have the problem of personal bias as these writers are likely to exhibit less rigorousness
and objectivity than one would expect in research reports.
Availability of data –it is important to make sure that the required data is available before
you proceed further with your study.
Format– Before deciding to use data from secondary sources it is equally important to
ascertain that the data is available in the required format. For example, you might need to
analyze age in the categories 23–33, 34–48, and so on, but, in your source, age may be
categorized as 21–24, 25–29, and so on.

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 Qualitative vs Quantitative Data

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