11/25/2024

Graph Theory
Lecture - 5

Dr. Ilyas Fakhir

 Trees

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•A graph that is connected and has no cycle is called a
tree.
• Generallya graph that does not contain any cycle is
called acyclic graph. Using this notation, we can say
that a connected acyclic graph is a tree.
• These
graphs are connected and have no cycles.
Hence, each of these graphs is a tree.

2
 Rooted Trees

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• A rooted tree is a tree where one of the nodes is
designated as the root node. (Only one root in a
tree)
• A rooted tree has a hierarchical structure: the root
on top, followed by the nodes adjacent to it right
below, followed by the nodes adjacent to those1
next, and so2 on. 8 9
3 2 7
10
1 7
5 8 9
5 12
4 6 10
3
11
4 6
11 12

Unrooted tree Tree rooted with root 1 3

 Tree-Related Concepts

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• The nodes adjacent to x and below x are
called the children of x, 1

and x is called their parents 3 2 7

•A node that has no

5 8 9
children is called a leaf
• The descendants of a node 10
4 6
are: itself, its children,
11 12
their children, all the way down
• The ancestors of a node are: itself, its
parent, its grandparent, all the way to the
root 4
Tree-Related Concepts (Contd.)

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• Thedepth of a node is the number of edges
from the root to that node. 1

• The depth (or height) of

3 2 7
a rooted tree is the depth
of the lowest leaf 5 8 9

• Depth of node 10: 3

4 6 10
• Depth of this tree: 4

11 12

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root internal vertex

descendants of g
ancestor of d

leaf
parent of d

child of c
subtree
sibling of d

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Forest

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•Aforest is an acyclic graph. The connected
components of a forest are therefore trees,
which explains the use (very natural!) of
the terminology. Forests generalize trees.
Tree Traversal Techniques

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• Threerecursive techniques for binary tree
traversal
• In
each technique, the left subtree is traversed
recursively, the right subtree is traversed
recursively, and the root is visited
• Whatdistinguishes the techniques from one
another is the order of those 3 tasks

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Preoder, Inorder, Postorder

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• In Preorder, the root Preorder Traversal:
is visited before (pre) 1. Visit the root
2. Traverse left subtree
the subtrees traversals 3. Traverse right subtree
• In Inorder, the root is
Inorder Traversal:
visited in-between left 1. Traverse left subtree
and right subtree traversal 2. Visit the root
3. Traverse right subtree
• In Postorder, the root
is visited after (pre) Postorder Traversal:
1. Traverse left subtree
the subtrees traversals 2. Traverse right subtree
3. Visit the root 9
Illustrations for Traversals

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1
• Assume: visiting a node
is printing its label 3 7

• Preorder:
1 3 5 4 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 5 8 9

• Inorder: 10
4 6
4 5 6 3 1 8 7 9 11 10 12
• Postorder: 11 12
4 6 5 3 8 11 12 10 9 7 1

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Level Order Traversal
• This is a different traversal than what we
have covered above. Level order traversal
follows BFS(Breadth-First Search) to
visit/modify every node of the tree.
• As BFS suggests, the breadth of the tree
takes priority first and then move to depth. In
simple words, we will visit all the nodes
present at the same level one-by-one from
left to right and then move to the next level
to visit all the nodes of that level.
Example

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Spanning Trees

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• A spanning tree of a graph is just a subgraph
that contains all the vertices and is a tree.
• A graph may have many spanning trees.
• In certain applications it is useful to know the
exact number. We shall write τ(G) for the
number of spanning trees of a graph G.
• One can sometimes calculate τ(G) quite quickly.
If G is a tree, then τ(G) = 1. If G is a cycle of
length n, then n spanning trees can be
constructed, each by deleting one edge, so τ(G)
= n.
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Example

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•Aspanning tree in G1 must contain one of the edges
xy and one of the edges yz. The number of choices is
2 x 3 = 6. So τ(G1) = 6. Since loops do not affect the
function r , τ(G2) = 4. To calculate τ(G3) , one first
observes that three pairs of vertices must be joined.
This can be done in four ways. In each case there are
eight trees. So τ(G3 ) = 4 x 8 = 32. 14
Complete Graph All 16 of its Spanning Trees, τ(G) = n(n-2) , n number of veritces

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Minimal Spanning Trees

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• TheMinimal Spanning Tree for a given graph is
the Spanning Tree of minimum cost for that
graph.
Complete Graph Minimal Spanning Tree

2 2

5 3 3

1 1

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Algorithms for Obtaining the

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Minimum Spanning Tree

• Kruskal's Algorithm

• Prim's Algorithm

• Boruvka's Algorithm

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Kruskal's Algorithm

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• This algorithm creates a forest of trees.
Initially the forest consists of n single node
trees (and no edges). At each step, we add
one edge (the cheapest one) so that it joins
two trees together. If it were to form a cycle,
it would simply link two nodes that were
already part of a single connected tree, so
that this edge would not be needed.

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Kruskal's Algorithm Pseudocode

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1. T (the final spanning tree) is defined to be
the empty set;
2. For each vertex v of G, make the empty set
out of v;
3. Sort the edges of G in ascending (non-
decreasing) order;
4. For each edge (u, v) from the sored list of
step 3.
If u and v belong to different sets
Add (u,v) to T;
Get together u and v in one single set;
5. Return T

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• The steps are:

 The forest is constructed - with each node in a

separate tree.
 The edges are placed in a priority queue.
 Until we've added n-1 edges,
 Extract the cheapest edge from the queue,
 If it forms a cycle, reject it,
 Else add it to the forest. Adding it to the forest
will join two trees together.

• Every step will have joined two trees in the

forest together, so that at the end, there will
only be one tree in T.
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Complete Graph

B 4 C
4
2 1

A 4 E
1 F

D 2 3
10
G 5

5 6 3

4
I
H

2 3
J

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A 4 B A 1 D

B 4 C B 4 D

B 4 C B 10 J C 2 E
4
2 1
C 1 F D 5 H
A 4 E
1 F

2 D 6 J E 2 G
D 3
10
G 5
F 3 G F 5 I
5 6 3

4
I G 3 I G 4 J
H

2 3
J H 2 J I 3 J

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 Sort Edges

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A 1 D C 1 F
(in reality they are placed in a priority queue - not
sorted - but sorting them makes the algorithm
C 2 E E 2 G
easier to visualize)

B 4 C H 2 J F 3 G
4
2 1
G 3 I I 3 J
A 4 E
1 F

2 A 4 B B 4 D
D 3
10
G 5
B 4 C G 4 J
5 6 3

4
I F 5 I D 5 H
H

2 3
J D 6 J B 10 J

23
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Add Edge A 1 D C 1 F

C 2 E E 2 G

B 4 C H 2 J F 3 G
4
2 1
G 3 I I 3 J
A 4 E
1 F

2 A 4 B B 4 D
D 3
10
G 5
B 4 C G 4 J
5 6 3

4
I F 5 I D 5 H
H

2 3
J D 6 J B 10 J

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Add Edge A 1 D C 1 F

C 2 E E 2 G

B 4 C H 2 J F 3 G
4
2 1
G 3 I I 3 J
A 4 E
1 F

2 A 4 B B 4 D
D 3
10
G 5
B 4 C G 4 J
5 6 3

4
I F 5 I D 5 H
H

2 3
J D 6 J B 10 J

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Add Edge A 1 D C 1 F

C 2 E E 2 G

B 4 C H 2 J F 3 G
4
2 1
G 3 I I 3 J
A 4 E
1 F

2 A 4 B B 4 D
D 3
10
G 5
B 4 C G 4 J
5 6 3

4
I F 5 I D 5 H
H

2 3
J D 6 J B 10 J

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Add Edge A 1 D C 1 F

C 2 E E 2 G

B 4 C H 2 J F 3 G
4
2 1
G 3 I I 3 J
A 4 E
1 F

2 A 4 B B 4 D
D 3
10
G 5
B 4 C G 4 J
5 6 3

4
I F 5 I D 5 H
H

2 3
J D 6 J B 10 J

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Add Edge A 1 D C 1 F

C 2 E E 2 G

B 4 C H 2 J F 3 G
4
2 1
G 3 I I 3 J
A 4 E
1 F

2 A 4 B B 4 D
D 3
10
G 5
B 4 C G 4 J
5 6 3

4
I F 5 I D 5 H
H

2 3
J D 6 J B 10 J

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Cycle A 1 D C 1 F

Don’t Add Edge

C 2 E E 2 G

B 4 C H 2 J F 3 G
4
2 1
G 3 I I 3 J
A 4 E
1 F

2 A 4 B B 4 D
D 3
10
G 5
B 4 C G 4 J
5 6 3

4
I F 5 I D 5 H
H

2 3
J D 6 J B 10 J

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Add Edge A 1 D C 1 F

C 2 E E 2 G

B 4 C H 2 J F 3 G
4
2 1
G 3 I I 3 J
A 4 E
1 F

2 A 4 B B 4 D
D 3
10
G 5
B 4 C G 4 J
5 6 3

4
I F 5 I D 5 H
H

2 3
J D 6 J B 10 J

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Add Edge A 1 D C 1 F

C 2 E E 2 G

B 4 C H 2 J F 3 G
4
2 1
G 3 I I 3 J
A 4 E
1 F

2 A 4 B B 4 D
D 3
10
G 5
B 4 C G 4 J
5 6 3

4
I F 5 I D 5 H
H

2 3
J D 6 J B 10 J

31
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Add Edge A 1 D C 1 F

C 2 E E 2 G

B 4 C H 2 J F 3 G
4
2 1
G 3 I I 3 J
A 4 E
1 F

2 A 4 B B 4 D
D 3
10
G 5
B 4 C G 4 J
5 6 3

4
I F 5 I D 5 H
H

2 3
J D 6 J B 10 J

32
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Cycle A 1 D C 1 F

Don’t Add Edge

C 2 E E 2 G

B 4 C H 2 J F 3 G
4
2 1
G 3 I I 3 J
A 4 E
1 F

2 A 4 B B 4 D
D 3
10
G 5
B 4 C G 4 J
5 6 3

4
I F 5 I D 5 H
H

2 3
J D 6 J B 10 J

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Add Edge A 1 D C 1 F

C 2 E E 2 G

B 4 C H 2 J F 3 G
4
2 1
G 3 I I 3 J
A 4 E
1 F

2 A 4 B B 4 D
D 3
10
G 5
B 4 C G 4 J
5 6 3

4
I F 5 I D 5 H
H

2 3
J D 6 J B 10 J

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Minimum Spanning Tree Complete Graph

B 4 C 4
B C
4 4
2 1 2 1
A E A 4
1 F E F
1

D 2 2
D 3
10
G G 5

3 5 6 3

4
I I
H H
2 3 3
J 2 J

35
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Assignment

Write Pseudocode the following algorithms and

verify through examples.

• Prim's Algorithm

• Boruvka's Algorithm

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Other Kinds of Binary Trees (Full Binary
Trees)
• Full
Binary Tree: A full binary tree is a binary
tree where all the leaves are on the same level
and every non-leaf has two children
• The first four full binary trees are:

37
Examples of Non-Full Binary Trees

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• These
trees are NOT full binary trees: (do you
know why?)

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Canonical Labeling of Full Binary Trees

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• Label
the nodes from 1 to n from the top to the
bottom, left to right

1
1 1 2 3
2 3
4 5 6 7
1
2 3 Relationships between labels
5 6 7 of children and parent:
4 i
8 9 10 111213 14 15 2i 2i+1

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Other Kinds of Binary Trees
(Almost
40 Complete Binary trees)

• Almost Complete Binary Tree: An almost complete

binary tree of n nodes, for any arbitrary nonnegative
integer n, is the binary tree made up of the first n
nodes of a canonically labeled full binary
1
1 1
1 1
2 3
2 2 3
2 1
1 4 5 6
4 2 3
2 3
4 5
4 5 6 7
Depth/Height of Full Trees and Almost

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Complete Trees

• The height (or depth ) h of such trees is O(log n)

• Proof:In the case of full trees,
 The number of nodes n is: n = 1+2+22+23+…+2h ---- (i)
 Multiply by 2 2n = 2+22+23+…+2h+1 ---- (ii)
 Subtract (i) from (ii) n = 2h+1– 1
 Therefore, 2h+1 = n+1, and thus by taking log base 2,
log(2h+1 )= log(n+1) (h+1)log2=log(n+1)
 h+1 = log(n+1) h = log(n+1) – 1
 Hence, h=O(log n)
• For
almost complete trees, the proof is left as an
exercise. 41
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Canonical Labeling of
Almost Complete Binary Trees
• Same labeling inherited from full binary trees
• Same relationship holding between the labels of
children and parents:

Relationships between labels

of children and parent:
i
2i 2i+1

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Array Representation of Full Trees

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and Almost Complete Trees
• A canonically label-able tree, like full binary
trees and almost complete binary trees, can
be represented by an array A of the same
length as the number of nodes
• A[k] is identified with node of label k
• That is, A[k] holds the data of node k
• Advantage:
 no need to store left and right pointers in the
nodes  save memory
 Direct access to nodes: to get to node k,
access A[k]
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Example: In any graph or multigraph, the sum of

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the degrees of the vertices equals twice the number
of edges.

• If G = (V, E) be a non-directed graph with vertices

V = {V1, V2,…Vn}. The sum of the entries in
column j is 2, since each edge is incident with two
vertices; the sum over all columns is thus 2e, so
that

• If G = (V, E) be a directed graph with vertices V =

{V1, V2,…Vn}, then

44