Chapter 1

Introductio
n

Introduction: 1-1
Chapter 1: introduction
Objectives:
 Introduction to data communications; defines their components and
the types of data exchanged.
 Introduction networks; defines their criteria and structures (network
topologies)
 Introduction to different of networks types: LANs, WANs, and
internetworks (internets).
 A Brief History of the Internet
 Protocols, standards and standards organizations

Introduction: 1-2
Why Networks (the Internet) are
Important?
 An engine of economic growth
• Electronic business/commerce
• Online marketplaces
• Digitization and digital transformation
• IoT, Cloud Computing, Big Data, AI, etc.

In 2023:
• 5.3B users globally
(66% of the
population)
• 29.3 Billion devices
(3.6 per capita)

Source: Cisco Annual Internet Report, 2018–2023

Why Networks (the Internet) are
Important?
 An enabler of societal change
• Access to knowledge
• Ease of access to information anywhere in the world
• Access to news and media
• Social and personal relationships

Introduction: 1-4
Data Communication vs.
Networking
 Data Communication  Data Networks

• How to represent data (encoding) • How to find shortest path

• How to represent signal (routing)
(modulation) • How to sync sender and receiver
• How to check if error occurred (flow control)
(error detection) • How to secure connection
• What frequency, power, etc. to (encryption)
use • How applications work, e.g. Email,
web server, Torrent, Online
Gaming.
Introduction: 1-5
 Data Communication vs. Networking

application application

transport transport
Networking

network network

link link

Data communication
physical physical

source destination

Introduction: 1-6
What this course is about?

 Learning Outcomes:
• Identify and describe the basic network components, services, and
technologies.
• List the layered architecture of network protocols (e.g., TCP/IP)
and explain core functions at each layer including addressing,
routing, internetworking, switching, multiplexing, error and flow
control, medium access, and coding.
• Apply a range of common network applications, utilities, traffic
analyzers, and network simulators.
• Identify potential threats to network resources and describe the
basic security mechanisms and protocols.
Introduction: 1-7
Data Communications
 The term telecommunication, which includes telephony, telegraphy, and
television, means communication at a distance (tele is Greek for “far”).
 The word data refers to information presented in whatever form is agreed
upon by the parties creating and using the data.
 Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via
some form of transmission medium such as a wire cable.

Introduction: 1-8
Components of Data
communications
 A data communications system has five components (see Figure 1.1).

Introduction: 1-9
Components of Data
communications
 The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms
of information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video
 The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a
computer, workstation, mobile handset, video camera, etc.
 The receiver is the device that receives the message.
 The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels
from sender to receiver, e.g., twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic
cable, and radio waves.
 A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents
an agreement between the communicating devices.

Introduction: 1-10
Effectiveness of Data
Communication
 Four fundamental characteristics influence the effectiveness of a data
communications system:
• Delivery: Deliver data to the correct destination.
• Accuracy: Deliver the data accurately.
• Timeliness: Deliver data in a timely manner. Real-time transmission
requires timely delivery [without significant delay].
• Jitter: Variations in packet arrival time.

Introduction: 1-11
Data Flow
 Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-
duplex as shown in Figure 1.2.
• In Simplex mode, the
communication is unidirectional,
as on a one-way street.
• In half-duplex mode, each station
can both transmit and receive, but
not at the same time.
• In full-duplex mode, both stations
can transmit and receive
simultaneously.

Introduction: 1-12
Networks
 A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by
communication links.
 A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending
and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the network.

Introduction: 1-13
 Network Criteria
A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most
important of these are performance, reliability, and security.
 Performance: examples of performance metrics include delay/response
time, and throughput. It depends on the number of users, type of
transmission medium, hardware, and software.
 Reliability: measured by the frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to
recover from a failure, and the network’s robustness in catastrophic
incidents.
 Security: protecting data from unauthorized access and damage. Also,
implementing policies and procedures for recovery from breaches and data
losses.

Introduction: 1-14
Physical Structures of Networks
 The way a link is connecting two or more devices defines the type of
Connection:
• Point-to-Point
• Multipoint

Introduction: 1-15
Physical Topology
 Physical Topology refers to the way a network is laid out physically.
 Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology.
 The topology of a network is the geometric representation of the
relationship of all the links and linked devices (nodes) to one another.
 There are four basic types of topologies:
• Mesh Topology
• Star Topology
• Bus Topology
• Ring Topology

Introduction: 1-16
Mesh Topology

 In the Mesh Topology every device has a

dedicated point-to-point link to every
other device.

 E.g. n = 5 nodes, #of links = 10

Figure 1.4: A fully-connected mesh topology

Introduction: 1-17
Mesh Topology
 Advantages
• Dedicated links → Guaranteed load
• Robustness: If one link fails, only that link is affected.
• Privacy and security
• Easy fault identification and fault isolation
 Disadvantages
• Amount of cabling and the number of I/O ports required
• Installation and reconnection are difficult
• Wiring can be greater than the available space
• The hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports and cable) can be prohibitively
expensive.

Introduction: 1-18
Star Topology
 In Star Topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a
central controller, usually called a hub.
 Unlike mesh topology, if one device wants to send data to another, it sends
the data to the controller, which then relays the data to the other connected
device.

Introduction: 1-19
Star Topology
 Advantages
• A star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology.
• Easy to install and reconfigure
• Far less cabling needs to be housed
• Robustness: If one link fails, only that link is affected.
 Disadvantage
• Single point of failure: If the hub goes down, the whole system is down.

Introduction: 1-20
Bus Topology
 A bus topology, on the other hand, is multipoint.
 One cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a network.

 A Drop line is a connection running between the device and the main cable.
 A Tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable or punctures the
sheathing of the cable to create contact with the metallic core.

Introduction: 1-21
Bus Topology
 Advantages
• Ease of installation
• Less cabling; backbone cable can be laid along the most efficient path, and then
connected to the nodes by drop lines.
 Disadvantage
• A signal propagating in the bus experiences degradation proportional to the cable
length and number of taps. Hence, there is a limit on the number of taps and the
distance between taps
• Difficult fault isolation. A fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission, even
between devices on the same side of the problem. The damaged area reflects signals
back in the direction of origin, creating noise in both directions.

Introduction: 1-22
Ring Topology
 Each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection only with the two
devices on either side of it.
 Each device incorporates a repeater.
 When a device receives a signal intended for another device, its repeater
regenerates the bits and passes them along.

Introduction: 1-23
Ring Topology
 Advantages
• To add or delete a device requires changing only two connections.
• Fault isolation is easier.
• A signal is circulating at all times. If one device does not receive a signal within a
specified period, it can issue an alarm.
 Disadvantages
• Unidirectional traffic
• In a simple ring, a break in the ring (such as a disable station) can disable the entire
network.
• This weakness (above) can be solved by using a dual ring or a switch capable of
closing off the break.

Introduction: 1-24
Hybrid Topology
star

ring
bus

Introduction: 1-25
Categories of Networks
 There are different types of networks we encounter in the world today.
 A typical criteria for distinguishing one type of network from another
considers size, geographical coverage, and ownership.
• Local Area Network (LAN)
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
• Wide Area Network (WAN)

Introduction: 1-26
Local Area Network (LAN)
 Privately owned and it links devices in a single office, building, or campus.
 Limited to a few kilometers.
 Hardware or data resources are usually shared.
 Topology: Ring, bus, star.
 A LAN can be as simple as two PCs and a printer in someone’s home office,
or it can extend throughout a company.

Introduction: 1-27
Local Area Network (LAN)
 Examples:

Introduction: 1-28
Local Area Network (LAN)
 Examples:

Introduction: 1-29
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
 A network with a size between a LAN and a WAN
 Extend over an entire city.
 Owned and operated by a private company, e.g. a service provider (ISP)

Introduction: 1-30
Wide Area Network (WAN)
 Provides long-transmission of data, voice, image, and video information
over large geographic areas that may comprise a country, a continent, or
even the whole world.
 Interconnects connecting devices such as switches, routers, or modems.
 It is normally created and run by communication companies (ISPs) and
leased by an organization that uses it.

Introduction: 1-31
Wide Area Network (WAN)
 WANs: a switched WAN vs. a point-to-point WAN

Figure 1.9: A Point-to-Point WAN

Figure 1.10: A Switched WAN

Introduction: 1-32
Wide Area Network (WAN)

Figure 1.11: An internetwork made of two LANs and one WAN

Introduction: 1-33
Wide Area Network (WAN)
 A heterogeneous network made of WANs and LANs

Introduction: 1-34
Switching
 An internet (note the lowercase i) is a switched network in which a switch
connects at least two links.
 A switch forwards data from one network to another network when
required.
 The two most common types of switched networks are:
• Circuit-switched networks
• Packet-switched networks

Introduction: 1-35
Circuit switching
In Circuit-Switched Networks end-end
resources are allocated to, reserved
for “call” between source and
destination
 in the diagram, each link has four circuits.
• call gets 2nd circuit in top link and 1st
circuit in right link.
 +ve: dedicated resources: no sharing
• circuit-like (guaranteed) performance
 -ve: circuit segment is idle if not used by
call (no sharing)
 commonly used in traditional telephone networks
Introduction: 1-36
Packet Switching
 In a packet-switched network, the communication between the two
networks is done in blocks of data called packets.
 It uses a router that has a queue that can store and forward the packets.

Packets

3 2 1
source destination

queue of packets

Introduction: 1-37
The Internet
 An internet (note the lowercase i) is two or more networks that can
communicate with each other.
 The most notable internet is called the Internet (uppercase I), and is
composed of thousands of interconnected networks.
 The Internet consists of several backbones, provider networks, and
customer networks.
 The Internet has revolutionized many aspects of our daily lives.
 It has affected the way we do business as well as the way we spend our
leisure time.

Introduction: 1-38
The Internet: a “nuts and bolts”
view
Billions of connected mobile network
computing devices: national or global ISP
 hosts = end systems
 running network apps at
Internet’s “edge”

Packet switches: forward

local or
packets (chunks of data) Internet
regional ISP
 routers, switches
home network content
Communication links provider
network datacenter
 fiber, copper, radio, satellite network

 transmission rate: bandwidth

Networks enterprise
 collection of devices, routers, network
links: managed by an organization
Introduction: 1-39
The Internet

Peering
point Peering
point

Figure 1.15: The Internet today

Introduction: 1-40
 Protocols and Standards
 What’s a protocol?
Human protocols: Network protocols:
 “what’s the time?”  computers (devices) rather than humans
 “I have a question”  all communication activity in Internet
 introductions governed by protocols

Rules for:
… specific messages sent
… specific actions taken
when message received,
or other events
Introduction: 1-41
Protocols and Standards
 What’s a protocol?

A protocol defines the format, order of messages sent

and received among network entities, and actions
taken on message transmission, receipt

A protocol defines what is communicated, how it is

communicated, and when it is communicated.

Introduction: 1-42
Protocols and Standards
 Key elements of protocols:
• Syntax: Refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the order
in which they are presented.
• Semantics: Refers to the meaning of each section of bits.
• Timing: When data should be sent and how fast they can be sent

Introduction: 1-43
What’s a protocol?
 There is a plethora of protocol acronyms
• we will discuss details of some protocols

Introduction: 1-44
Internet Standards and Drafts
 Standard is a formalized regulation that must be followed.
 There is a strict procedure by which a specification attains Internet standard
status. A summary set of steps is given below:
1. A specification begins as an Internet draft
with no official status and a six-month
lifetime.
2. Upon recommendation from the Internet
authorities, a draft may be published as a
Request for Comment (RFC).
3. An RFC, during its lifetime, falls into one of
six maturity levels: proposed standard,
draft standard, Internet standard, historic,
experimental, and informational.
Introduction: 1-45
Internet Standards and Drafts
 RFCs (Request for Comment) are classified into five requirement levels:
• Required
• Recommended
• Elective
• Limited
• Not recommended

Introduction: 1-46
Standard Organizations
 International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
 International Telecommunication Union - Telecommunication Standards
(ITU-T)
 American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
 Electronic Industries Association (EIA)
 International Engineering Task Force (IETF)

Introduction: 1-47
Internet history (reading)
1961-1972: Early packet-switching principles
 1961: Kleinrock - queueing  1972:
theory shows effectiveness of • ARPAnet public demo
packet-switching • NCP (Network Control Protocol)
 1964: Baran - packet-switching first host-host protocol
in military nets • first e-mail program
 1967: ARPAnet conceived by • ARPAnet has 15 nodes
Advanced Research Projects
Agency
 1969: first ARPAnet node
operational
Internet history
1972-1980: Internetworking, new and proprietary networks
 1970: ALOHAnet satellite
Cerf and Kahn’s internetworking
network in Hawaii principles:
 1974: Cerf and Kahn -  minimalism, autonomy - no
architecture for interconnecting internal changes required to
networks interconnect networks
 best-effort service model
 1976: Ethernet at Xerox PARC
 stateless routing
 late70’s: proprietary  decentralized control
architectures: DECnet, SNA, XNA define today’s Internet architecture
 1979: ARPAnet has 200 nodes

Introduction: 1-49
Internet history
1980-1990: new protocols, a proliferation of networks
 1983: deployment of TCP/IP  new national networks: CSnet,
 1982: smtp e-mail protocol BITnet, NSFnet, Minitel
defined  100,000 hosts connected to
 1983: DNS defined for name- confederation of networks
to-IP-address translation
 1985: ftp protocol defined
 1988: TCP congestion control

Introduction: 1-50
Internet history
1990, 2000s: commercialization, the Web, new applications
 early 1990s: ARPAnet late 1990s – 2000s:
decommissioned  more killer apps: instant
 1991: NSF lifts restrictions on messaging, P2P file sharing
commercial use of NSFnet  network security to forefront
(decommissioned, 1995)
 est. 50 million host, 100 million+
 early 1990s: Web
users
• hypertext [Bush 1945, Nelson 1960’s]
 backbone links running at Gbps
• HTML, HTTP: Berners-Lee
• 1994: Mosaic, later Netscape
• late 1990s: commercialization of the
Web
Introduction: 1-51
Internet history
2005-present: scale, SDN, mobility, cloud
 aggressive deployment of broadband home access (10-100’s Mbps)
 2008: software-defined networking (SDN)
 increasing ubiquity of high-speed wireless access: 4G/5G, WiFi
 service providers (Google, FB, Microsoft) create their own networks
• bypass commercial Internet to connect “close” to end user, providing
“instantaneous” access to social media, search, video content, …
 enterprises run their services in “cloud” (e.g., Amazon Web Services,
Microsoft Azure)
 rise of smartphones: more mobile than fixed devices on Internet (2017)
 ~18B devices attached to Internet (2017)
Introduction: 1-52