Learning

Definition
Relatively permanent change in behavior brought about
through experience or interactions with the environment
Not all changes result from learning
• Change in behavior is not always immediate
Types of Learning
1.Learning by trial and error
2.Learning by imitation (OBSERVATIONAL LRARNING)
3. Learning by insight (Cognition)
4. Learning by conditioning
Trial and Error Learning
• In trial and error learning, an person learns to perform a
behavior more and more skillfully by repeating
behaviors that result in rewards and avoiding behaviors
that result in punishment
EXAMPLES

Fixing a gadget: Trying various buttons on

a remote control until the correct one
operates the TV.
Finding the right route: Taking different
paths to reach a new location until the
shortest or easiest route is identified.
Assembling furniture: Trying different
ways to fit pieces together until the correct
setup is achieved.
EXAMPLES
Learning to ride a bike: A child may fall, adjust
their balance, and try again until they master
riding.

Cooking a new recipe: A person might

experiment with ingredient quantities until the
dish tastes right.

Unlocking a combination lock: Trying various

combinations until the correct one is found.
 Thorndike Experiment
• Thorndike devised an elaborate cage called a puzzle
box. A hungry cat was placed in the puzzle box and had
to learn unlocking the door and escape. When the
cat succeeded it was awarded with food and then
placed back inside the box. After several trials learned
to open the door. After that, when put in the cage again,
the cat walked calmly to the lever pushed it down with
its paw, strolled through the door and received the food.
• The cat learned “escape behaviour” through trial and
error.
Observational Learning
• Observational learning is learning that occurs through
observing the behavior of others.
• Social model is very important in observational learning
• Family, parents, friends, teachers and society.
• Influencers and Celebrities
 EXAMPLES

Parenting behaviors: A child watches their

parents managing stress and mimics calm
responses in tense situations.
Art skills: Observing an artist paint and
replicating their brushstrokes to create a similar
effect.
 Learning social cues: A student observes
their peers’ interactions and learns when to
laugh or join in conversations.
DIY projects: Watching YouTube tutorials to
learn how to build or fix something.
Language learning: Listening to how native
speakers pronounce words and adopting similar
accents and pronunciations.
Insight Learning

Insight learning occurs when a person strategically solve

a problem without trial and error.
Psychologist Wolfgang Kohler conducted experiments
with chimpanzees to study insight learning.
Setup: Kohler placed bananas out of reach of the
chimpanzees and provided tools (sticks or boxes).
• Observation: The chimpanzees did not initially succeed
in getting the bananas but eventually stopped, thought
for a while, and suddenly figured out how to use the
tools to reach the bananas.
• Conclusion: The chimps showed insight by solving the
problem in a sudden way, without random trial-and-
error attempts.
EXAMPLES
Solving a puzzle: While stuck on a jigsaw puzzle,
a person suddenly realizes how a specific piece
fits.

Catching a high shelf object: Using a chair

instead of jumping when the idea suddenly strikes.

Mathematical problem-solving: A student

struggling with a formula suddenly understands
how to apply it after thinking through the
relationships.
Associative Learning
Types of associative learning
• Classical Conditioning
• Operant Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning involves forming an association
between two stimuli, resulting in a learned response.
Key Terms used in classical conditioning
• Unconditioned Stimulus
• An unconditioned stimulus is a stimulus or trigger that
leads to an automatic response.
• If a cold breeze makes you shiver, for instance, the cold
breeze is an unconditioned stimulus; it produces an
involuntary response (the shivering).
• Breeze (UCS)= Shivering (UCR)
Neutral Stimulus
• A neutral stimulus is a stimulus that doesn’t
initially trigger a response on its own.
Conditioned Stimulus
• A conditioned stimulus is a stimulus that was
once neutral (didn’t trigger a response) but now
leads to a response.
• Example
• Perfume(UCS)=happiness or desire (UCR)
• Perfume (UCS) might be associated with a specific
person (CS)
• Person (CS) who has been associated with nice perfume
(UCS) is now found attractive (CR)
Unconditioned Response
• An unconditioned response is an automatic
response or a response that occurs without
thought when an unconditioned stimulus is
present.
• Experiencing physical pain (US), such as a cut or burn,
elicits crying (UR).
• Pain (UCS) = Crying (UCR)
• Pain(UCS) + whip (Neutral)= Crying (UCR)
• Whip (CS)= Crying (CR)
Conditioned Response
• A conditioned response is a learned response or a
response that is created where no response
existed before.
• Food(UCS)= Salivation (UCR)
• Food(UCS)+ Food Aroma (Neutral)= Salivation (UCR)
• Food Aroma (CS)= Salivation (CR)
How Classical Conditioning
Works
• Classical conditioning involves forming an association
between two stimuli, resulting in a learned
response. There are three basic phases of this process.
• Phase 1: Before Conditioning
• During this phase of the process, the unconditioned
stimulus (UCS) results in an unconditioned
response (UCR). Presenting food (the UCS)
naturally and automatically triggers a salivation
response (the UCR).
• At this point, there is also a neutral stimulus that
produces no effect—yet.
Phase 2: During Conditioning
• During the second phase of the classical
conditioning process, the previously neutral
stimulus is repeatedly paired with the
unconditioned stimulus. As a result of this
pairing, an association between the previously
neutral stimulus and the UCS is formed.
Phase 3: After Conditioning
• Once the association has been made between the
UCS and the CS, presenting the conditioned
stimulus alone will come to evoke a response—
even without the unconditioned stimulus. The
resulting response is known as the conditioned
response (CR).
Pavlov's Experiment
• Pavlov’s experiment on classical conditioning showed
how animals can learn through association. He worked
with dogs and noticed they salivated not only when food
was given but also when they saw the person who
brought the food. To study this, Pavlov paired the sound
of a bell (a neutral stimulus) with the presentation of
food (an unconditioned stimulus). Over time, the dogs
began to salivate (a conditioned response) just by
hearing the bell, even without seeing the food. This
demonstrated how a neutral stimulus could become
associated with an unconditioned stimulus to produce a
learned response.
Key Principles of Classical
Conditioning
Acquisition
• Acquisition is the initial stage of learning, when a
response is first established and gradually
strengthened. During the acquisition phase of
classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus is
repeatedly paired with an unconditioned
stimulus.
• Example: A luxury brand repeatedly pairs its products
with glamorous advertisements, leading consumers to
associate the brand with high status
Extinction
• Extinction is when the occurrences of a
conditioned response decrease or disappear. In
classical conditioning, this happens when a
conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with an
unconditioned stimulus.
• Example: A coffee brand stops using its iconic
advertisements, and over time, consumers no longer
feel energized or happy when they see the brand’s logo.
Spontaneous Recovery
Sometimes a learned response can suddenly re-
emerge, even after a period of extinction. This is
called spontaneous recovery.
• Example: Years after the coffee brand has
stopped being used, a consumer unexpectedly
hears it in a new ad and feels a rush of nostalgia
and agitation to buy it.
Generalization
• Stimulus generalization in classical conditioning occurs
when a conditioned response (CR) is elicited by stimuli
that are similar to the conditioned stimulus (CS), even
though these stimuli were not part of the original
conditioning. It demonstrates the subject’s ability to
extend learned associations to similar stimuli.
• A consumer who loves a specific brand of perfume might also
feel inclined to buy the same brand’s body lotion or
deodorant, assuming it will have the same quality and appeal.
Discrimination
• Discrimination is the ability to differentiate
between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli
that have not been paired with an unconditioned
stimulus.
• Example: A consumer can distinguish between a high-
end brand’s genuine leather bag and a counterfeit
version, choosing the genuine product due to brand
trust.
Operant Conditioning
• Operant conditioning, sometimes referred to
as instrumental conditioning, is a learning method that
employs rewards and punishments for behavior.
Through operant conditioning, an association is made
between a behavior and a consequence (whether
negative or positive) for that behavior.
Daily life Examples
• If you raise your hand to ask a question and your
teacher praises your polite behavior, you will be more
likely to raise your hand the next time you have a
question or comment. Because the behavior was
followed by reinforcement, or a desirable outcome, the
preceding action is strengthened.
• Conversely, actions that result in punishment or
undesirable consequences will be weakened and less
likely to occur again in the future. If you shout out an
answer in class and your teacher scolds you, then you
might be less likely to interrupt the class again.
Respondent vs. Operant
Behaviors
Respondent behaviors are those that occur
automatically and reflexively, such as pulling your hand
back from a hot stove
• Operant behaviors, on the other hand, are those under
our conscious control.
Reinforcement in Operant
Conditioning
• Reinforcement is any reward or incentive that
strengthens or increases the behavior it follows
• Positive Reinforcement
• Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes
that are presented after the behavior.
• If you do a good job at work and your manager gives
you a bonus, that bonus is a positive reinforcer.
Example
• A coffee shop gives customers a free coffee after every
five purchases through a loyalty card. This reward
encourages repeat purchases by adding a positive
outcome (free coffee) for the desired behavior (buying
coffee).
Negative Reinforcement
• a response is strengthened by the removal of
something considered unpleasant.
• For example, if your child starts to scream in the middle
of a restaurant, but stops once you hand them a candy,
your action led to the removal of the unpleasant
condition, negatively reinforcing your behavior (not your
child’s).
Example
• A subscription service offers an ad-free experience
when consumers pay for the premium version. This
removes the annoyance of ads (negative stimulus),
encouraging consumers to subscribe.