Introduction to psychological assessment

All fields of human endeavour use measurement in some form, and

each field has its own set of measuring tools and measuring units.
For example, if you’ve been shopping for a computer, you may have
learned something about a unit of measurement called a byte.

As a student of psychological measurement, you need a working

familiarity with some of the commonly used units of measure in
psychology and a knowledge of some of the many measuring tools
employed.

In this class, you will gain that knowledge as well as an acquaintance

with the history of measurement in psychology and an
understanding of its theoretical basis.
 History of Assessment
The early version of psychological testing - Exams administered as
part of China’s imperial examination (civil service examination)
system considered as the first extensive tests. The testing
requirements were excessively demanding, and the Chinese didn’t
successfully accredit their selection processes.

Francis Galton (France) was a pioneer in modern psychological

testing in the nineteenth century. It helped to distinguish between
mental illness and mental retardation and lessen the abuse,
suffering, and mockery meted out to both groups. Francis Galton
developed a method for evaluating intellect based on nonverbal
sensory-motor tests, as well as introduced psychometrics and
eugenics.
In 1905, Alfred Binet and a colleague published a test designed to
help place Paris school children in appropriate classes.

Binet’s test was recognized beyond the Paris school. Within a

decade, an English language version of Binet’s test was prepared
for use in schools in the United States.

In World War I, when the military needed a way to screen large

numbers of recruits quickly for intellectual and emotional
problems, psychological testing provided this methodology.
During World War II, the military depended even more on
psychological tests to screen recruits for service. Following the war,
more and more tests purporting to measure an ever-widening array
of psychological variables were developed and used.

There were tests to measure not only intelligence but also

personality, aspects of brain functioning, performance at work, and
many other aspects of psychological and social functioning.

The world’s receptivity to Binet’s test in the early twentieth century

spawned not only more tests but more test developers , more test
publishers and more test users.
 Testing and Assessment

Psychological assessment means gathering and integration of

psychology - related data for the purpose of making a psychological
evaluation that is accomplished through the use of tools such as
tests, interviews, case studies, behavioral observation, and specially
designed apparatuses and measurement procedures.

Whereas, psychological testing is the process of measuring

psychology-related variables by means of devices or procedures
designed to obtain a sample of behavior. Some of the differences
between these two processes are further discussed.
 Testing and Assessment
Testing Assessment
Objective Typically, to obtain some gauge, usually Typically, to answer a referral
numerical in nature, with regard to an question, solve a problem, or a
ability or attribute. rrive at a decision through the use
of tools of evaluation.
Process Testing may be individual or group in Assessment is typically
nature. After test administration, the individualized. In contrast to
tester will typically add up the number testing, assessment more typically
of correct answers or the number of focuses on how an individual
certain types of responses . . . with processes rather than simply the
little if any regard for the how or results of that processing.
mechanics of such content.
Role of The tester is not key to the process; The assessor is key to the process
Evaluator practically speaking, one tester may be of selecting tests and/or other
substituted for another tester without tools of evaluation as well as in
appreciably affecting the evaluation. drawing conclusions from the
entire evaluation.
 Testing Assessment
Skill of Testing typically requires Assessment typically requires an
Evaluator technician-like skills in terms of educated selection of tools of
administering and scoring a test evaluation, skill in evaluation, and
as well as in interpreting a test thoughtful organization and
result. integration of data.
Outcome Typically, testing yields a test Typically, assessment entails a
score or series of test scores. logical problem-solving a pproach
that brings to bear many sources
of data designed to shed light on a
referral question.

The line between what constitutes testing and what constitutes assessment is not always
very clear.

Describe a situation in which testing is more appropriate

than assessment. Then describe a situation in which
assessment is more appropriate than testing.
 The process of assessment
In general, the process of assessment begins with a referral for assessment
from a source such as a teacher, a school psychologist, a counselor, a judge, a
clinician, etc. Typically, one omore referral questions are put to the assessor
about the assessee. Some examples of referral questions are:

“Can this child function in a regular classroom?”

“How well can this employee be expected to perform if promoted to an
executive position?”

The assessor may meet with the assessee or others before the formal
assessment in order to clarify aspects of the reason for referral. The assessor
prepares for the assessment by selecting the tools of assessment to be used.
For example, if the assessment is in a corporate or military setting and the
referral question concerns the assessee’s leadership ability, the assessor may
wish to employ a measure (or two) of leadership.
Typically, it the assessor’s own past experience, education, and training that
play a key role in the specific tests or other tools to be employed in the
assessment. Sometimes an institution in which the assessment is taking
place has prescribed guidelines for which instruments can and cannot be
used. In most every assessment situation, particularly situations that are
relatively novel to the assessor, the tool selection process may be informed
by some research in preparation for the assessment.

Subsequent to the selection of the instruments or procedures to be

employed, the formal assessment will begin. After the assessment, the
assessor writes a report of the fi ndings that is designed to answer the
referral question. More feedback sessions with the assessee and/or
interested third parties (such as the assessee’s parents and the referring
professional) may also be scheduled.
Different assessors may approach the assessment task in different ways. Some
assessors approach the assessment with minimal input from assessees
themselves. Other assessors view the process of assessment as more of a
collaboration between the assessor and the assessee.

For example, in one approach to assessment, referred to as collaborative

psychological assessment, the assessor and assessee may work as “partners”
from initial contact through final feedback.

Another variety of collaborative assessment may include an element of

therapy as part of the process - a collaborative approach to assessment called
therapeutic psychological assessment. Here, therapeutic self-discovery and
new understandings are encouraged throughout the assessment process.
Another approach to assessment that seems to have picked up momentum in
recent years, most notably in educational settings, is referred to as dynamic
assessment. The term dynamic in this context refers to the interactive,
changing, or varying nature of the assessment.

In general, dynamic assessment refers to an interactive approach to

psychological assessment that usually follows a model of (1) evaluation, (2)
intervention of some sort, and (3) evaluation.

Dynamic assessment is most typically employed in educational settings,

although it may be employed in correctional, corporate, neuropsychological,
clinical, and any other setting.
Intervention between evaluations, sometimes even between individual
questions posed or tasks given, might take many different forms, depending
upon the purpose of the dynamic assessment.

For example, an assessor may intervene in the course of an evaluation of an

assessee’s abilities with increasingly more explicit feedback or hints. The
purpose of the intervention may be to provide assistance with mastering
the task at hand. Progress in mastering the same or similar tasks is then
measured. In essence, dynamic assessment provides a means for evaluating
how the assessee processes or benefits from some type of intervention
(feedback, hints, instruction, therapy, etc.) during the course of evaluation.
In some educational contexts, dynamic assessment may be viewed as a way
of measuring not just learning but so-called learning potential, or “learning
how to learn” skills.
 The Tools of Psychological Assessment
1. The Test
A test may be defined simply as a measuring device or procedure. When the
word test is prefaced with a modifier, it refers to a device or procedure
designed to measure a variable related to that modifier.

Consider, for example, the term medical test, which refers to a device or
procedure designed to measure some variable related to the practice of
medicine (including a wide range of tools and procedures such as X-rays,
blood tests, and testing of reflexes). In a like manner, the term psychological
test refers to a device or procedure designed to measure variables related
to psychology (for example, intelligence, personality, aptitude, interests,
attitudes, and values). Whereas a medical test might involve analysis of a
sample of blood, tissue, or other parameters, a psychological test almost
always involves analysis of a sample of behavior.
Psychological tests and other tools of assessment may differ with respect to a
number of variables such as -

Content - The content (subject matter) of the test will, of course, vary with the
focus of the particular test. But even two psychological tests purporting to
measure the same thing—for example, personality —may differ widely in item
content. This is so because what is deemed important in measuring
“personality” for one test developer might be entirely different for another
test developer; different test developers employ different definitions of
“personality.” Additionally, different test developers come to the test
development process with different theoretical orientations.

Format - The term format pertains to the form, plan, structure, arrangement,
and layout of test items as well as to related considerations such as time
limits. Format is also used to refer to the form in which a test is administered:
computerized, pencil-and-paper, or some other form.
Administration procedures - Tests differ in their administration procedures. Some tests,
particularly those designed for administration on a one-to-one basis, may require an
active and knowledgeable test administrator. Alternatively, some tests, particularly
those designed for administration to groups, may not even require the test
administrator to be present while the test takers independently do whatever it is the
test requires.

Scoring and interpretation procedures - Tests differ in their scoring and interpretation
procedures. In testing and assessment, scores can be defined as a code or summary
statement, usually but not necessarily numerical. in nature, that reflects an evaluation
of performance on a test, task, interview, or some other sample of behavior. Scoring is
the process of assigning such evaluative codes or statements to performance on tests,
tasks, interviews, or other behavior samples. Some scores result from the simple
summing of responses (such as the summing of correct/ incorrect or agree/disagree
responses), and some scores result from the application of more elaborate procedures.

Technical quality - Tests differ with respect to their technical quality i.e. psychometric
soundness of a test (psychometrics may be defined as the science of psychological
measurement).
2. The Interview

In everyday conversation, the word interview conjures images of face-to-

face talk. But the interview as a tool of psychological assessment typically
involves more than talk. If the interview is conducted face-to-face, then the
interviewer is probably taking note of not only the content of what is said
but also the way it is being said. More specifically, the interviewer is taking
note of both verbal and nonverbal behavior. In its broadest sense, then, we
can define an interview as a method of gathering information through
direct communication involving reciprocal exchange. Interviews differ with
regard to many variables, such as their purpose, length, and nature.
Interviews may be used by psychologists in various specialty areas to help
make diagnostic, treatment, selection, or other decisions.

•What are the strengths of the interview as a tool of assessment?

•What are the weaknesses of the interview as a tool of
assessment?
3. The Portfolio
Students and professionals in many different fields of endeavour ranging
from art to architecture keep fi les of their work products. These work
products—whether retained on paper, canvas, film, video, audio, or some
other medium— constitute what is called a portfolio. As samples of one’s
ability and accomplishment, a portfolio may be used as a tool of evaluation.

4. Case History
Data Case history data refers to records, transcripts, and other accounts in
written, pictorial, or other form that preserve archival information relevant to
an assessee. Case history data may include files maintained at institutions
and agencies such as schools, hospitals, employers, religious institutions, and
criminal justice agencies. Other examples of case history data are letters and
written correspondence, photos and family albums, newspaper and magazine
clippings, and home videos, movies, and audiotapes etc. Case history data is
a useful tool in a wide variety of assessment contexts.
5. Behavioral Observation
Behavioral observation, as it is employed by assessment professionals, may be
defined as monitoring the actions of others or oneself by visual or electronic means
while recording quantitative and/or qualitative information regarding the actions.
Behavioral observation is often used as a diagnostic aid in various settings such as
inpatient facilities, behavioral research laboratories, and classrooms. In addition to
diagnosis, behavioral observation may be used for selection purposes. Sometimes
researchers venture outside of the confines of clinics, classrooms, workplaces, and
research laboratories in order to observe behavior of humans in a natural setting—
that is, the setting in which the behavior would typically be expected to occur. This
variety of behavioral observation is referred to as naturalistic observation.

6. Role-Play
Tests Role play may be defi ned as acting an improvised or partially improvised part in
a simulated situation. A role-play test is a tool of assessment wherein assessees are
directed to act as if they were in a particular situation. Assessees may then be
evaluated with regard to their expressed thoughts, behaviors, abilities, and other
variables.
7. Computers as Tools
Computers can serve as test administrators (online or offline) and as highly efficient
test scorers. Computers can derive not only test scores but patterns of test scores.
The term computer assisted psychological assessment (CAPA ) refers to the
assistance computers provide to the test user, not the test-taker. Another term
computer adaptive testing (CAT), is a reference to the computer’s ability to tailor
the test to the test-taker’s ability or test-taking pattern. For example, on a
computerized test of academic abilities, the computer might be programmed to
switch from testing math skills to English skills after three consecutive failures on
math items.

8. Other Tools
•Video recordings of actual occurrences
•Tools traditionally associated with medical health, such as thermometers, blood
pressure measuring instruments
In general, there has been no shortage of innovation on the part of psychologists in
devising measurement tools, or adapting existing tools, for use in psychological
assessment.