Digital Control Systems

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 Discrete (Sampling) System
1 Introduction
x(t) x*(t)
1.1 Sampling x(t)
Make a analog signal to be a discrete
signal shown as in Fig.8.1 .
x(t) —analog signal . t
x (t) —discrete signal .
* 0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6

1.2 Ideal sampling switch —sampler Fig.8.1 signal sampling

Sampler —the device which fulfill the sampling.
Another name —the sampling switch — which works like a
switch shown as in Fig.8.2 . T

1.3 Some terms x(t) x*(t)

1. Sampling period T— the time interval
of the signal sampling: T = ti+1 － ti . 0
t
0
t

Fig.8.2 sampling switch

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1.3 Some terms
2. Sampling frequency ωs — ωs = 2π fs = 2π / T .
3. Periodic Sampling — the sampling period Ts = constant.
4. Variable period sampling — the sampling period Ts≠constant.
5. Synchronous sampling —not only one sampling switch in a
system, but all work Synchronously.
6. Multi-rate sampling.
7. Opportunity(Random) sampling.
We mainly discuss the periodic and synchronous sampling in
this chapter
1.4 Sampling (or discrete) control system
There are one or more discrete signals in a control system —
the sampling (or discrete) control system. For example the
digital computer control system: 7
 Block-diagram of digital system
a. Placement of
the digital computer
within the loop;
b. detailed block
diagram showing
placement of A/D
and D/A converters

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Block-diagram of digital system
r(t) e(t) e*(t) u*(t) u (t) c(t)
A/D computer D/A process
－

measure
Fig.8.3 computer control system
1.5 Sampling analysis
Expression of the sampling signal:
 
  (t  kT )   x(kT ) (t  kT )
x * ( t )  x( t )  T ( t )  x( t ) 
k 0 k 0

It can be regarded as Fig.8.4:

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1.5 Sampling analysis
T
x(t) x*(t)

x(t) x*(t)
δT(t)
× ＝
t t t
0 0 0
Modulation modulating modulated
signal pulse(carrier) wave
Fig.8.4 sampling process
  
jk s t 1 jk s t
because :  T ( t )    ( t  kT )   C ne   e   s 2 / T
k 0 k  T k 
 T /2 0 0
1 
C 1 jk s t 1 jk s t 1
 n T T
 ( t )e dt 
T T
 ( t )e dt 
T  T (t )dt T 
 T /2 0 0 
We have:
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1.5 Sampling analysis
 Laplace 
1 jk s t 1
x * ( t )  x( t ) 
T
e  X * ( s ) 
T
 X ( s  jk s )
k  transformation k 

  
 here : X ( s )  L[ x ( t )]  x ( t )e dt 
 st
  
 0 

1
The frequency spectrum of x * ( t ) : X* ( j ) 
T
 X [ j(  k s )]
k 
This means: for the frequency spectrum of x(t) shown in
Fig.8.5, the frequency spectrum of x*(t) is like as Fig.8.6.
X * ( j )
X ( j ) Filter  max
Only:  s 2 max
  X ( j ) could be
  max  max
  max
s reproduced
Fig.8.5 2 s
Fig.8.6 11
 So we have:
1.6 Sampling theorem ( Shannon’s theorem)
If the analog signal could be whole restituted from the sampling
signal, the sampling frequency  s must be satisfied :

 s 2 max or T 
 max
here :  max  the maximu m frequency of the analog signal .
T  sampling period .
s  sampling frequency ,  s 2 T .
1.7 zero-order hold
Usually the controlled process require the analog signals, so
we need a discrete-to-analog converter shown in Fig.8.7.
x*(t) discrete-to-analog xh(t) Fig.8.7
converter D/A convert 12
 Ideal sampling and the
zero-order hold

Ideal sampling and the

zero-order hold
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1.7 zero-order hold
The ideal frequency response of the D/A converter is shown in
Fig.8.8.
A(ω)  ( )
To put the ideal frequency response in
ω
practice is difficult, the zero -order hold
is usually adopted. Fig.8.8
The action of the zero-order hold is shown x*(t)
in Fig.8.9. x(t)
xh(t)
The mathematic expression of xh(t) :
x h ( t )  x ( kT ) kT t  ( k  1)T
The unity pulse response of the zero- Fig.8.9
order hold is shown in Fig.8.10. g(t)
The transfer function of the zero-order
hold can be obtained from the unity pulse
t
response: 1  e  Ts
G ( s )  L1( t )  1( t  T )  T
s Fig.8.10 14
Zero Order Hold

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 
Definition x * ( t )   x( kT ) ( t  kT )
k 0


Using the Laplace transform: x * ( s )   x ( kT )e  kTs
k 0

Ts
Define: z e

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Z-transform
We have the Z-transform:

X ( z )  Z  x( t )  Z  x * ( t )   x( kT ) z  k
k 0
Z-transforms of some
Table 8.1
common signals
x( t ) X ( s) X (z)
The Z-transforms of some  (t ) 1 1
z
common signals is shown in 1( t ) 1
s z 1
table 8.1. t 1 Tz
s2 ( z  1) 2
characteristics of Z- 1 z
e  t
transform s  z  e  T
 z sin T
The characteristics of Z- sin t
s2  2 z 2  2 z cos T  1
transform is given in table s z ( z  cos T )
cos t
8.2. s2  2 z 2  2 z cos T  1
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 Table 8.2
x( t ) X (z)
k1 x1 ( t ) k 2 x2 ( t ) k1 X 1 ( z ) k 2 X 2 ( z )
m 1
x( t  mT ) z m
X (z)   x(iT  mT )z  i
i 0
m 1
x ( t  kT ) z m X (z)   x(iT )z m  i
i 0
dX ( z )
tx( t )  Tz
dz
e t x( t ) X ( z ) z ze T
a k x( t ) X ( z ) z z
a
Initial value lim x( t ) lim X ( z )
t 0 z 
Final value lim x( t ) lim( z  1) X ( z )
t  z 1
 k 
Z  x1 ( t )  x 2 ( t )  Z   x1 ( iT ) x2 ( kT  iT )
Real convolution  i 0 
 X1(z) X 2 (z) 18
2.3 characteristics of Z-transform
Using the characteristics of Z-transform we can conveniently
deduce the Z-transforms of some signals.
Such as the examples shown in table 8.3:
Table 8.3
x( t ) X (z)
z z (1  e  T ) z
1  e  t  
z 1 z e   T ( z  1)( z  e  T )
Tz Tze  T
te  t 
( z  1) 2 z zeT ( z  e  T ) 2
z z
ak 
z  1 z z z  a
a
d Tz T 2 z ( z  1)
t2  Tz 
dz ( z  1) 2 ( z  1) 3
 ( t  mk ) z m
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Z-transform
Z-transform methods
1. Partial-fraction expansion approaches
A(s) K1 K2 Kn
If : X(s)     
( s  a1 )( s  a 2 ) ( s  a n ) s  a1 s  a 2 s  an
n
Ki z
then : X ( z )   ai T
i 1 z  e
Example:

 5( s  4)   10 15 5  10 z 15 z 5z
Z  Z       T
  2T
 s ( s  1)( s  2 )   s s  1 s  2  z  1 z  e z  e

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 Inverse Z-transform

x( kT )  Z  1  X ( z )  Inverse z-transform

1. Partial-fraction expansion approaches

A(z) K1z K2z

If : X(z)   a1T  a2T  anT
  a1T
  a2T
 
(z  e )( z  e ) ( s  e ) z e s e
n
then : X ( kT )  K i e  ai kT
i 1

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Inverse Z-transform
Example:
  2T
1 z (1  e )   1 z z   2 kT
x( kT )  Z   2T   Z z 1   2T 
1  e
 ( z  1)( z  e )   z e 
2. Power-series approaches
A(z)
If : X(z)   K 1 z  1  K 2 z  2  K 3 z  3  
B( z )
then : X ( kT )  K 1 ( t  T )  K 2 ( t  2T )  K 3 ( t  3T )  
Example:
1
 z 3
 2 z 2
1 
x ( kT )  Z  3 2 
 z  1.5 z  0.5 z 

 Z  1 1  3.5 z  1  4.75 z  2  6.375 z  3   
1  3.5 ( t  T )  4.75 ( t  2T )  6.375 ( t  3T )  
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Block diagram representation of difference
equation:
yn  a1yn  1  a2 yn  2  b0 xn

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 Block Diagram Representation

• The implementation of difference

equations requires delayed values
of the
– input
– output
– intermediate results
• The requirement of delayed
elements implies need for storage
• We also need means of
– addition
– multiplication
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 Direct Form I
N M

 â yn 
k 0
k k    b̂k xn  k 
k 0

General form of difference equation

N M
yn  a k yn  k    bk xn  k 
k 1 k 0

• Alternative equivalent form

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 Direct Form II
• No need to store the
same data twice in
previous system
• So we can collapse the
delay elements into one
chain
• This is called Direct
Form II or the Canonical
Form
• Theoretically no
difference between
Direct Form I and II

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Example 1

Find f(3)

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Solution

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Example 2

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Solution

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Example 3

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Solution

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Example 4

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Solution

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 Pulsed Transfer Function

The ratio of the z transform of the output

of a system to the z transform
of the input, when
both input and output are trains of pulses

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 Pulse Transfer Function
Figure 13.8
Sampled-data
systems:
a. continuous;
b. sampled
input;
c. sampled
input
and output
C (z)
G (z) 
R (z)

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 3 Mathematical modeling of the sampling systems
3.2 Z-transfer (pulse) function
Definition: Z-transfer (pulse) function — the ratio of the Z-
transformation of the output signal versus input signal for the
linear sampling systems in the zero-initial conditions, that is:
C (z)
G( z ) 
R( z )
1. The Z-transfer function of the open-loop system
r(t) c*(t)
G1(s) G2(s c(t)
T T
)
R(z) C(z)
G1(z)G2(z) G1(z) =Z [ G1(s)] G2(z) =Z
[ c*(t)
G2(s)]
r(t)
G1(s) G2(s) c(t)
T

R(z) C(z)
G1G2(z) G1G2(z) =Z [ G1(s)G2(s) ] 39
 Sampled-data systems and their z-
transforms

Figure 13.9
Sampled-data
systems and their z-
transforms 40
3.2 Z-transfer (pulse) function
2. The z-transfer function of the closed-loop system
r c R( z )G ( z )
－
G(s) C (z)   GH ( z )  Z G ( s ) H ( s )
1  GH ( z )
H(s)

r c
－
G(s) R( z )G ( z )
C (z) 
H(s) 1  G( z ) H ( z )

r c
G1(s) G2(s) R( z )G1 ( z )G2 ( z )
－ C (z) 
H(s)
1 G1 ( z )G2 H ( z )

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3.2 Z-transfer (pulse) function
r c
G2(s) G3(s)
－ G1(s)
H(s)
RG1 ( z )G2 ( z )G3 ( z )
C (z) 
1  G2 ( z )G3 ( z )G1 ( z ) H ( z )
r c
G1(s) G2(s)
－ －
H1(s)
H2(s) R( z )G1 ( z )G2 ( z )
C (z) 
1  G2 H 1 ( z )  G1 ( z )G2 H 2 ( z )
r c
G1(s) G2(s) G3(s)
－ －
H1(s)
H2(s)
RG1 ( z )G2 ( z )G3 ( z )
C (z) 
1  G2 ( z )G3 H 1 ( z )  G2 ( z )G1G3 H 2 ( z )
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