Electrics

Basic Concepts
What is electricity?

Electricity is the set of physical phenomena associated with

the presence and flow of electric charge. Electricity has
well-known effects, such as lightning, static electricity,
electromagnetic induction
The mathematical models of passive elements can be given with an analogy
between mechanics and electrics. The elements and their definitions in
mechanics and electrics are given below.

There is an analogy among the quantities in the columns. Mass and inductor
have the same equations and the elements and their equations are given below,
respectively. Kinetic and magnetic energy equations are written for mass and
inductor. Mechanical-Electrical Analogy
. ..
x x x m k c f
Disp. Vel. Acc. Mass Spring const. Damp. const. Force
(m) (m/s) (m/s2) (kg) (N/m) (Ns/m) (N)
f mx
1
E1  mx 2
2
q i di L 1/C R V
Charge Current Inductance C:Capacitance Resistance Voltage
dt
(Coulomb) (Amper) (Henry) (Farad) (Ohm) (Volt)

di
V L
dt
1
E1  Lq 2
2
Spring and capacitor have the same equations. The equations for these elements
are given below, respectively.

Potenatial and electric energy equations are written for spring and capacitor
elements.

Mechanical-Electrical Analogy
x
.
x x
.. m k c f
Disp. Vel. Acc. Mass Spring const. Damp. const. Force
(m) (m/s) (m/s2) (kg) (N/m) (Ns/m) (N)

f mx
1
E1  mx 2
2
q i di L 1/C R V
Charge Current Inductance C:Capacitance Resistance Voltage
dt
(Coulomb) (Amper) (Henry) (Farad) (Ohm) (Volt)

di
V L
dt
1
E1  Lq 2
2
Damper and resistor have the same equations. The equations for these elements
are given below, respectively.

The virtual work equations are written for damper and resistor elements.

Mechanical-Electrical Analogy
x
.
x x
.. m k c f
Disp. Vel. Acc. Mass Spring const. Damp. const. Force
(m) (m/s) (m/s2) (kg) (N/m) (Ns/m) (N)

f mx f kx f cx

1 1 W fx
E1  mx 2 E 2  kx2 W  cx x
2 2
q i di L 1/C R V
Charge Current Inductance C:Capacitance Resistance Voltage
dt
(Coulomb) (Amper) (Henry) (Farad) (Ohm) (Volt)

di 1
V L V q V Ri
dt C W Vq
1 1
E1  Lq 2 E 2  q 2 W  Rq q
2 2C
Analogy in Mechanical , Electrical, Fluid Systems

. ..
x x x m k c f
Disp. Vel. Acc. Mass Spring cons. Damp. Cons. Force
(m) (m/s) (m/s2) (kg) (N/m) (Ns/m) (N)

q i L 1/C R V
Charge Current Induc. C:Capac. Resistance Voltage
(Coulomb) (Amper) (Henry) (Farad) (Ohm) (Volt)

Vf Qf If 1/Cf Rf P
Volume Flow rate Fluid Cf:Fluid Fluid Pressure
inertia capacitance resistance
(m3) (m3/s) (kg/m4) (N/m2)
What is electric charge?
All materials are made up from atoms, and all atoms
consist of protons, neutrons and electrons.
– Protons, have a positive electrical charge.
– Neutrons have no electrical charge
– Electrons, have a negative electrical charge.

The charge is a measure of electron/proton balance in an

atom and can be calculated by extracting number of
protons from number of electrons
What is electric charge?
The unit of charge is called the Coulomb [C].
The smallest unit of “free” charge known in nature is the
charge of an electron or proton, which has a magnitude
of
e = 1.602 ×10−19 [C]
An electron carries one unit of negative charge e−, while a
proton carries one unit of positive charge, e+.
In a closed system, the total amount of charge is conserved
since charge can neither be created nor destroyed.
A charge can, however, be transferred from one body to
another.
What is electric charge?
If the numbers of the electrons and protons are equal in
an atom, it is stable. If there exist any inbalance in
numbers of charged particles then atom becomes
instable. This means that atom starts to exert a potential
of attraction:

Like charges repel and opposite charges attract each other.

Coulomb Force
The magnitude and the direction of the force that two
charged particle exerts eachother can be found using
Coulomb Law
A system of two point charges, q1 and q2 , separated by a
distance “d” in vacuum. The force is
q1q2 
F12 ke 2 r N 
1 9  Nm 2

ke  8.987 10  2 
d 4 0  C 

F12  F21

r is the unit vector pointing the direction particle 1 to 2

Coulomb Force
Coulomb’s law applies to any pair of point charges. When
more than two charges are present, the net force on
any one charge is simply the vector sum of the forces
exerted on it by the other charges.

Using superposition rule:

FT F13  F23
Generating electricity
Some physical effect causes electricity
Back to basics: friction
If we take the examples of wax and wool which have been
rubbed together,
we find that the surplus of electrons in the wax (negative
charge)
and the deficit of electrons in the wool (positive charge) creates
an imbalance of charge between them.
This imbalance manifests itself as an attractive force
between the two objects:
Back to basics: friction
If a conductive wire is placed between the charged wax
and wool, electrons will flow through it.

Some of the excess electrons in the wax rush through the

wire to get back to the wool, filling the deficiency of
electrons
Electric Current
Electric current is the rate of charge flow past a given
point in an electric circuit, measured in
Coulombs/second which is named Amperes
As with all quantities defined as a rate, there are two ways
to write the definition of electric current :
Average Current:
Q  C
I  A 
t  s
Instantaneous Current

dQ
I   A
dt
Direction of Electric Current
The conventional current direction is the direction from high voltage
to low voltage, high energy to low energy, and thus has some
appeal in its parallel to the flow of water from high pressure to
low

The flow of electrons around the circuit is opposite to the direction

of the conventional current flow. This is because the charge on
an electron is negative by definition and so is attracted to the
positive terminal.
Measurement of Electric Current
An ammeter is an instrument for measuring the electric current in
amperes in a branch of an electric circuit. It must be placed in
series with the measured branch, and must have very low
resistance to avoid significant alteration of the current it is to
measure.
Electrical Potential Difference or Voltage
Voltage, ( V ) is the potential energy of an electrical supply stored in
the form of an electrical charge.

Voltage can be thought of as the force that pushes electrons

through a conductor and the greater the voltage the greater is its
ability to "push" the electrons through a given circuit.
Alternating or Direct
The source of an electric circuit may be an Alternating
or Direct current or voltage supply.
In alternating current (AC, also ac),
the movement of electric charge
periodically reverses direction.
In direct current (DC, also dc), the flow of electric
charge is only in one direction.
Alternating Current or Voltage

AC is the form in which electric power is delivered to

businesses and residences. The usual waveform of
an AC power circuit is a sine wave.
Measurement of Voltage
A voltmeter measures the change in voltage between two points in
an electric circuit and therefore must be connected in parallel
with the portion of the circuit on which the measurement is
made.

The unit of the voltage is Volt [V]. In shematics letters V or E denotes

the term “voltage”
Measurement of AC Waveform
An instrument called an osciloscope is used to display
a changing voltage over time on a graphical screen.
Osciloscope
Osciloscope
Conductivity
The electrons of different types of atoms have different degrees of
freedom to move around.
With some types of materials, such as metals, the outermost electrons in the
atoms are so loosely bound that they chaotically move in the space
between the atoms.
In other types of materials such as glass, the atoms' electrons have very little
freedom to move around.
This relative mobility of electrons within a material is known as
electric conductivity.
Conductors: Insulators:
silver glass
copper rubber
gold oil
aluminum Asphalt
iron porcelain
steel ceramic
Conductivity=1/Resistance
When talking about circuits, the term resistance are used the
describe the conductivity issue.
The Resistance, ( R ) of a circuit or an element of the circuit is its
ability to resist the flow of current (electron flow) through itself.

Resistance is measured in Ohms, Greek symbol ( Ω, Omega ) with prefixes used to

denote Kilo-ohms (kΩ = 103Ω) and Mega-ohms (MΩ = 106Ω). Resistance
cannot be negative only positive.
Conductivity=1/Resistance
When talking about circuits, the term resistance are used the
describe the conductivity issue.
The Resistance, ( R ) of a circuit or an element of the circuit is its
ability to resist the flow of current (electron flow) through itself.
Resistance is measured in Ohms, Greek symbol ( Ω, Omega ) with prefixes used to
denote Kilo-ohms (kΩ = 103Ω) and Mega-ohms (MΩ = 106Ω). Resistance
cannot be negative only positive.
Using the given formula, the resistance of a substance with known
shape and material properties can be calculated.
: specific conductivity
L  m
R   Ωm 2  L:length
A  m  A: Cross sectional area
Resistance (Temprature)
Most conductive materials change specific resistance with changes
in temperature.
This is why figures of specific resistance
are always specified at
a standard temperature
(usually 20o or 25o Celsius(T0)).
The resistance-change factor per degree Celsius of temperature
change is called the temperature coefficient of resistance. This
factor is represented by the Greek lower-case letter "alpha" (α).
The formula used to determine the resistance of a conductor at any temperature
T:

R (T ) R0 (1   (T  T0 ))
Work and Energy
Work in electrical systems is defined as the amount of the necessary
energy for moving the electrical charge Q under the effect of an
potential difference V.
Because energy is the capacity to do work , we measure energy and work in the
same units (N*m or joules).
W QV Joule CoulombVolt
POWER (P) is the rate of energy generation (or absorption) over
time:

𝒅𝑸
𝑷= 𝑽 =𝑰𝑽 Watt=
𝒅𝒕 [ Joule Coulomb
=
saniye saniye
×Volt
]
The unit Joule may also be interpreted as Watt times time. That
convention is widely used in daily use as Watt-hours [Wh].
Work and Energy
Electric Circuit
Most practical applications of electricity involve the flow of electric
current in a closed path under the influence of a driving voltage,
analogous to the flow in a water circuit under the influence of a
driving pressure.
A complete path, typically through conductors such as wires and
through circuit elements, is called an electric circuit.
Electric Circuit Analysis/Ohm
The relation between voltage and the current in a circuit/component
is given by Ohm’s law.

Unit of Abbreviati
Quantity Symbol
Measure on
Voltage V or E Volt V
Current I Amp A
Resistance R Ohms Ω
Electric Circuit Analysis/Kirchhoff
In complex circuits such as bridge or T networks, we can not simply
use Ohm's Law alone to find the voltages or currents circulating
within the circuit.

Kirchoff developed a pair or set of rules which deal with the

conservation of current and energy within electrical circuits. The
rules are commonly known as:
Kirchoffs Circuit Laws with one of these laws dealing with current
flow around a closed circuit, Kirchoffs Current Law, (KCL) and
the other which deals with the voltage around a closed
circuit, Kirchoffs Voltage Law, (KVL).
Kirchoffs Current Law
Kirchoffs Current Law or KCL, states that the "total
current or charge entering a junction or node is
exactly equal to the charge leaving the node as it
has no other place to go except to leave, as no
charge is lost within the node". (Conservation of
Charge)

The term Node in an electrical circuit generally refers

to a connection or junction of two or more current
carrying paths or elements such as cables and
Kirchoffs Voltage Law
Kirchoffs Voltage Law or KVL, states that "in any
closed loop network, the total voltage around the
loop is equal to the sum of all the voltage drops
within the same loop" which is also equal to zero.

In other words the algebraic sum of all voltages within

the loop must be equal to zero.
 Example

Using Kirchoffs Current

Law (KCL) the equations
are given as:
• At node A : I1 + I2 = I3
• At node B : I3 = I1 + I2
Using Kirchoffs Voltage Law, KVL the equations are
given as;
• Loop 1 is given
as : 10 = R1 x I1 + R3 x I3 = 10I1 + 40I3
• Loop 2 is given
as : 20 = R2 x I2 + R3 x I3 = 20I2 + 40I3
• Loop 3 is given as : 10 - 20 = 10I1 - 20I2
As I3 is the sum of I1 + I2 we can rewrite the
equations as;
 Example
• I1 =-0.143 Amps (Wrong
Direction)
• I2 = +0.429 Amps
• I3 = I1 + I2
• At node B : I3 = I1 + I2
-0.143 + 0.429 = 0.286
Using Kirchoff's Circuit Amps
Laws is as follows:
1. Assume all voltage sources and resistances are
given.
2. Label each branch with a branch current.
3. Find Kirchoff's first law equations for each node.
4. Find Kirchoff's second law equations for each of the
independent loops of the circuit.
5. Use Linear simultaneous equations as required to
find the unknown currents.
 videos
•Using Multimeter
•Using Oscilascope

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