TOPIC 3: THERMAL PHYSICS

3.1 – THERMAL CONCEPTS

Understandings:
• Molecular theory of solids, liquids and gases
• Temperature and absolute temperature
• Internal energy
• Specific heat capacity
• Phase change
• Specific latent heat
TOPIC 3: THERMAL PHYSICS
3.1 – THERMAL CONCEPTS
Applications and skills:
• Describing temperature change in terms of internal
energy
• Using Kelvin and Celsius temperature scales and
converting between them
• Applying the calorimetric techniques of specific heat
capacity or specific latent heat experimentally
• Describing phase change in terms of molecular
behaviour
• Sketching and interpreting phase change graphs
• Calculating energy changes involving specific heat
capacity and specific latent heat of fusion and
vaporization
TOPIC 3: THERMAL PHYSICS
3.1 – THERMAL CONCEPTS
Guidance:
• Internal energy is taken to be the total intermolecular
potential energy + the total random kinetic energy
of the molecules
• Phase change graphs may have axes of temperature
versus time or temperature versus energy
• The effects of cooling should be understood
qualitatively but cooling correction calculations are
not required
Data booklet reference:
• Q = mcT
• Q = mL
 Topic 3: Thermal physics
3.1 – Thermal concepts intermolecular
bond
Molecular theory of solids, liquids and gases
The three phases of matter are solid,
liquid, and gas.
In a solid the molecules can only
vibrate. They cannot translate.
In a liquid the molecules can vibrate solid
and move about freely in a fixed volume.
In going from a solid to a liquid, some
of the intermolecular bonds are broken,
giving the molecules more freedom of
motion.
In going from a liquid to a gas, most
of the intermolecular bonds are broken. liquid
Topic 3: Thermal physics
3.1 – Thermal concepts
Phase change
The process of going from a solid to a liquid is called
melting.
The process of going from a liquid to a gas is called
boiling.
Each process can be reversed.
PHASE CHANGE PROCESS EXAMPLE
solid  liquid melting ice to water
liquid  solid freezing water to ice
liquid  gas boiling water to steam
gas  liquid condensing steam to droplets
solid  gas sublimation frost evaporation
gas  solid deposition frost
Topic 3: Thermal physics
3.1 – Thermal concepts
Internal energy
All substances are composed of individual molecules
that are in vibration.
As we heat up a substance its vibrations
become more energetic. This is an increase
in the kinetic energy of the molecules.
Simultaneously, as heat energy is being added the
molecules are also moving farther apart. This is an
increase in the potential energy of the substance.
The two energies together are called the internal energy
of the substance. Thus EINT = EK + EP.
When thermal energy (heat) is added to a substance it is stored
as internal energy (The energy contained in an object due to the
random KE and PE of all the particles in the substance).
Topic 3: Thermal physics
3.1 – Thermal concepts
Internal energy
EINT = EK + EP total internal energy

Total Internal Energy

Potential Energy Kinetic Energy
(due to inter-molecular (due to vibration and
forces) translation)

Think of Hooke’s The thermometer

law F = -kx and measures internal
phase change kinetic energy
 Topic 3: Thermal physics
3.1 – Thermal concepts

• Internal energy
Topic 3: Thermal physics
3.1 – Thermal concepts
Temperature and absolute temperature
Because absorption of thermal energy
Boiling
(heat) causes materials to expand, the 100° 212°
fluid in a thermometer can be used to

CELSIUS SCALE

FAHRENHEIT
indirectly measure temperature.

SCALE
Since water is a readily-available
substance that can be frozen, and
boiled within a narrow range of
temperatures, many thermometers are
calibrated using these temperatures.
Freezing
We will be using the Celsius scale 0° 32°
in physics because it is a simpler scale.

Temperature (degree of hotness of an object) only

reveals the internal kinetic energy.
E x p a n s i o n reveals internal potential energy.
Topic 3: Thermal physics
3.1 – Thermal concepts
Temperature and absolute temperature
When gas is heated in an enclosed
space its pressure p increases.
The following experiment plots pressure
p vs. temperature T in Celsius.
We can extrapolate the graph.
Now we repeat using different gases.
p 10 20
0 30

T (°C)
-300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300
Topic 3: Thermal physics
3.1 – Thermal concepts
Temperature and absolute temperature
The lowest pressure p that can exist is zero.
Surprisingly, the temperature at which any gas attains
a pressure of zero is the same, regardless of the gas.
The Celsius temperature at which the pressure is
zero (for all gases) is -273 °C.

-273.15 °C

T (°C)
-300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300
Topic 3: Thermal physics
3.1 – Thermal concepts
Temperature and absolute temperature
Because the lowest pressure that can exist is zero, this
temperature is the lowest temperature that can exist,
and it is called absolute zero.
A new temperature scale that has absolute
zero as its lowest value is called the 0° C Freezing 273 K
absolute (Kelvin) temperature scale.

CELSIUS SCALE

KELVIN SCALE
p

-273.15 °C

Absolute
zero
-273°C 0K
T (°C)
-300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300
Topic 3: Thermal physics
3.1 – Thermal concepts
Converting between Kelvin and Celsius temperatures
The simple relationship between the kelvin and
degrees Celsius scales is given here:
T(K) = T(°C) + 273 Kelvin and Celsius relationship
FYI Note that there is no degree Freezing
0° C 273 K
symbol on Kelvin temperatures.

CELSIUS SCALE

KELVIN SCALE
EXAMPLE: Convert 100°C to Kelvin,
and 100 K to C°.
SOLUTION:

Absolute
· T(K) = T(°C) + 273

zero
T = 100 + 273 = 373 K.
-273°C 0K
· 100 = T(°C) + 273
T = -173°C.
Can Human Really Feel
Temperature?
 Topic 3: Thermal physics
3.1 – Thermal concepts
Specific heat capacity
THERMAL ENERGY (HEAT): The non-mechanical transfer of
energy between a system and its surroundings. Energy is only
‘heat’ if it is transferred.
Traditionally in the U.S., heat energy is measured in
calories or kilocalories.
One kilocalorie is the amount of heat definition of
needed to raise the temperature of one the kilo-
kilogram of water by exactly 1 C°. calorie
1 calorie is needed to raise the
temperature of 1 gram (instead of a
kilogram) of water 1 C°.
Topic 3: Thermal physics
3.1 – Thermal concepts
Specific heat capacity
Conversion between Joules (J) and calories (cal).
1 cal = 4.186 J mechanical equivalent of heat
Topic 3: Thermal physics
3.1 – Thermal concepts
Specific heat capacity
EXAMPLE: How many joules is 450000 calories?
SOLUTION: Use 1 kcal = 4.186 kJ:
450000 cal = (450 kcal)(4.186 kJ / 1 kcal)
= 1900 kJ.
PRACTICE: A SnickersTM bar has 273.0 Cal. For
foods, Calories are really kcal. How many joules
are in a SnickersTM bar?

273.0 Cal = (273.0 kcal)(4.186 kJ / 1 kcal)

= 1143 kJ = 1,143,000 J!
Topic 3: Thermal physics
3.1 – Thermal concepts
Specific heat capacity
Different materials absorb heat energy in different
ways.
This means that if we have two different substances
having the same mass m, and each absorbs the same
amount of heat Q, their increase in temperature T may
be different.
We define the specific heat capacity c of a substance
as the amount of heat needed per unit temperature
increase per unit mass.
Q = mcT specific heat capacity c defined
Each material has its own unique value for c.
Topic 3: Thermal physics
3.1 – Thermal concepts
Specific heat capacity
Here are some specific heats for various materials.
Specific Heats c of Various Substances at 20°C and 1 atm.
Substance J / kg·C° kcal/kg·C° (or cal/g·C°)
Air (at 50°C) 1050 0.25
Water (at 15°C) 4186 1.00
Steam (at 110°C) 2010 0.48
Ice (at -5°C) 2100 0.50
Wood 1680 0.40
Ethyl Alcohol 2430 0.58
Steel 460 0.11

FYI
Note that specific heat units for c are (J kg-1 C°-1).
Topic 3: Thermal physics
3.1 – Thermal concepts
Calculating energies involving specific heat capacity

EXAMPLE: Air has a density of about  = 1.2 kg m-3.

How much heat, in joules, is needed to raise the
temperature of the air in a 3.0 m by 4.0 m by 5.0 m
room by 5°C?
SOLUTION:
· From the previous table we see that c = 1050.
· The change in temperature is given: T = 5°C.
· We get the mass from  = m / V or
m = V = (1.2)(3)(4)(5) = 72 kg.
· Q = mcT = (72)(1050)(5) = 378000 J or 380 kJ.
Topic 3: Thermal physics
3.1 – Thermal concepts

Calculating energies involving specific heat capacity

PRACTICE: Suppose we have a 200.-kg steel ingot and

a 200.-kg block of wood, both at room temperature
(20.0°C). If we add 1,143,000 J of heat (the energy of a
SnickersTM bar) to each object, what will its final
temperature be?
SOLUTION:
For both, Q = mcT = mc(T – T0).
Steel: 1143000 = 200(460)(T – 20)
12.4 = T – 20 or T = 32.4°C.
Wood: 1143000 = 200(1680)(T – 20)
3.40 = T – 20 or T = 23.4°C.
 12
Topic 3: Thermal physics
3.1 – Thermal concepts 9 3
6
Sketching and interpreting phase change graphs
Suppose a thermometer is frozen in ice, and the ice is
further cooled to a temperature of -20°C. We slowly add
heat, and plot the temperature vs. the heat Q added:
Since the thermometer measures kinetic
energy, and since the temperature doesn’t
change during the phase change, the heat 100ºC
must be getting stored ONLY as potential
Co 0ºC
energy during phase change. nd
e
Bo ns
T ilin ati
gP Po on
INTERNAL ENERGY oin int
STEAM t
100ºC
POTENTIAL KINETIC WATER
ENERGY ENERGY 0ºC
MeltingFreezing Po Q
ICE Point int
Topic 3: Thermal physics
3.1 – Thermal concepts
Phase change in terms of molecular behavior
As a model to help explain phase change consider a
molecule in an open box which can move left and right
but must remain “captured” in the box.
As more heat is stored as potential energy, the particle
in our model gains height.
Finally, the potential
During phase During
energy is great change temp-
enough to break the phase
erature does
intermolecular bonds not change change
(average potential
and change the phase molecular KE
energy
of the substance. the same) changes
The molecule is free! (increase)
Topic 3: Thermal physics
3.1 – Thermal concepts
Specific latent heat T
Latent heat means hidden heat, Boiling Point
by which we mean that there is no
temperature indication that heat is Q
Melting Point
being lost or gained by a substance.
The specific latent heat L is defined in this formula:
Q = mL specific latent heat L defined
Note that since there is no temperature change during
a phase change, there is no T in our formula. The units
for L are (J kg-1).
FYI
Use Q = mL during phase change (when T = 0).
Use Q = mcT otherwise (when T ≠ 0).
 Topic 3: Thermal physics
3.1 – Thermal concepts
Specific latent heat
Since there are two phase changes (two plateaus),
each substance has two latent heats.
Specific Latent Heats L of Various Substances at 1 atm.
Melting Lf Boiling Lv
Substance Point °C J/kg kcal/kg Point °C J/kg kcal/kg
Water 0 3.3310 80 100 22.6105 540
5
Mercury -39 0.1210 2.8 357 2.7105 65
5
Oxygen -219 0.1410 3.3 -183 2.1105 51
5
Gold 1063 0.6510 15.4 2660 15.8105 377
Lf is the specific latent heat of fusion.
5

T
Lv is the specific latent heat of Boiling Point Lv
vaporization. Lf
The temperatures associated with Melting Point Q
the phase changes are also given.
Topic 3: Thermal physics
3.1 – Thermal concepts
L = Q/m specific latent heat L defined
• Specific latent heat of
Cooling  falling temperature
rather than loss of energy fusion (melting) as the
energy required to
change the phase of 1
kg of substance from a
solid to a liquid without
any temperature
change.
• Specific latent heat of
vaporization (boiling)
as the energy required
to change the phase of
1 kg of liquid into a gas
without any
temperature change.
Topic 3: Thermal physics
3.1 – Thermal concepts
Specific latent heat
EXAMPLE: Compare boiling and evaporation.
SOLUTION:
Boiling takes place within the whole liquid at
the same temperature, called the boiling point.
Evaporation occurs only at the surface of
a liquid and can occur at any temperature.
Evaporation can be enhanced by increasing the
surface area, warming the liquid, or having air
movement at the surface.
Boiling and evaporation both remove the same
amount of heat energy from the liquid. This is
why sweating removes excess body heat so well!
Topic 3: Thermal physics
3.1 – Thermal concepts
Difference between evaporation and
boiling:
Topic 3: Thermal physics
3.1 – Thermal concepts
Calculating energies involving specific latent heat
Q = mL specific latent heat L defined
EXAMPLE:
Bob has designed a 525-kg ice chair. How
much heat must he remove from water at
0°C to make the ice chair (also at 0°C)?
SOLUTION:
· In a phase change T = 0 so we use Q = mL.
· Since the phase change is freezing, we use Lf.
· For the water-to-ice phase change Lf = 3.33105 J kg-
1
.
· Thus Q = mL = (525)(3.33105) = 175106 J.
Bob can now chill in his new chair.
Convection