CRITICAL THINKING & REASONING

Lecture# 1
“The important thing is not to stop questioning. Curiosity
has it’s own reason to for existing” Albert Einstein
 Critical thinking
“Critical thinking involves identifying, evaluating, and constructing arguments”
Examples:
1. A nurse analyzes the cases at hand and decides the order by which the patients should be
treated.
2. A plumber evaluates the materials that would best suit a particular job.

 Critical Thinking vs Common Sense

Critical thinking and common sense are related but different. Common sense is based on
general knowledge and practical judgment, while critical thinking involves deeper analysis
and evaluation of information to form well-reasoned conclusions.
Critical Thinking Skills
1. Analysis: Breaking down information into its components to understand
its meaning and structure.
2. Evaluation: Assessing the quality, credibility, and relevance of
information.
3. Inference: Drawing logical conclusions based on available evidence and
reasoning.
4. Explanation: Clearly and logically communicating your thoughts and
ideas.
These skills help us think critically and make more informed decisions.
 What is Logic?
A. Definition and Scope
“Logic can be defined as the systematic study of reasoning and inference, focusing on the
principles and rules that govern valid reasoning.”
It involves the analysis of arguments, propositions, and relationships between statements to
determine their validity and truth.
• The scope of logic extends to various areas, including philosophy, mathematics, computer
science, linguistics, and psychology. In essence, logic provides a framework for distinguishing
between valid and invalid reasoning, enabling individuals to think and communicate more
effectively.
Cont….
B. Historical Overview
• The study of logic dates back to ancient Greece, with notable contributions
from philosophers such as Aristotle, who formalized the principles of deductive
reasoning in his work "Organon.“
• Inthe modern era, logicians such as Gottlob Frege, Bertrand Russell, and
Alfred North Whitehead made significant contributions to symbolic logic and
formal systems, laying the groundwork for advancements in mathematics,
philosophy, and computer science.
• Today, logic continues to evolve as a dynamic field of study, with
interdisciplinary applications in areas such as artificial intelligence, cognitive
science, and argumentation theory, demonstrating its enduring relevance and
importance in human thought and inquiry.
 Cont….
C. Importance in Everyday Life
• Logic plays a crucial role in everyday life by helping individuals make rational
decisions, solve problems, and navigate complex situations.
• It enables people to evaluate arguments, detect fallacies, and critically assess
information presented in various contexts such as advertisements, news media, and
interpersonal communication.
• Logical thinking enhances one's ability to analyze situations objectively, identify
inconsistencies, and arrive at well-founded conclusions.
• In professions such as law, science, engineering, and medicine, logical reasoning is
indispensable for making accurate judgments, formulating hypotheses, and drawing
valid conclusions.
Elements of Logic
1. Propositions: Propositions are statements that can be either true or false. There are
different types, like categorical propositions (which use categories like "all," "some,"
or "none") and conditional propositions (which use "if...then" statements).
2. Arguments: Arguments are made up of propositions and have a structure. They
consist of premises (statements that support a conclusion) and a conclusion (the
main claim). Validity refers to the logical structure of an argument, while soundness
means that the argument is both valid and has true premises.
3. Fallacies: Fallacies are common errors in reasoning. They can be mistakes in logic
or attempts to manipulate or deceive. Some common types include ad hominem
(attacking the person instead of their argument) and straw man (misrepresenting
someone's argument to make it easier to attack).
Reasoning & Types of Reasoning
“The ability to derive/infer a conclusion from one or multiple premises(assumption)”
You use reasoning to derive conclusions from assumptions while you use critical thinking
to question the validity of the assumptions.
Types of Reasoning
A. Deductive Reasoning
1. Definition and Examples
• Deductive reasoning is a type of logical reasoning where conclusions are derived from
premises that are assumed to be true.
• It follows a top-down approach.
• starting
with general principles and applying them to specific cases to reach a certain
conclusion.
• Example: Premise 1: All humans are mortal.
Premise 2: Socrates is a human.
Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
In this example, the conclusion logically follows from the premises based on the principle of universal
generalization.

2. Syllogisms and Formal Logic:

Syllogisms are a common form of deductive reasoning consisting of two premises and a conclusion. Formal
logic provides a systematic framework for analyzing deductive arguments using symbols and rules of inference.
• Example of a syllogism:
Premise 1: All mammals are warm-blooded.
Premise 2: All whales are mammals.
Conclusion: Therefore, all whales are warm-blooded.
Formal logic helps to identify valid deductive arguments by examining the structure and logical relationships
between premises and conclusions.
B. Inductive Reasoning
1. Definition and Examples
• Inductive reasoning involves making generalizations based on specific observations or patterns.
• It follows a bottom-up approach.
• Conclusions are inferred from specific instances to form general principles or hypotheses.
• Example: Observation 1: Every observed raven is black.
Observation 2: Another raven is black.
Conclusion: Therefore, all ravens are black.
Inductive reasoning does not guarantee absolute certainty, but it provides probabilistic support for conclusions
based on available evidence.
2. Generalization and Prediction
Generalization is a key aspect of inductive reasoning, where patterns observed in specific cases are extrapolated
to broader categories. Prediction involves using past observations to anticipate future outcomes or events.
Inductive reasoning is widely used in scientific inquiry, data analysis, and everyday decision-making, where
empirical evidence is used to support hypotheses and make predictions about the world.
 C. Abductive Reasoning
1. Definition and Examples
• Abductive reasoning involves generating hypotheses or explanations to account for observed phenomena
or evidence.
• It operates by inference to the best explanation, where the most likely hypothesis is selected based on
available information.
• Example: Observation: The grass is wet.
Hypothesis: It rained last night.
Explanation: The wet grass is best explained by the hypothesis that it rained, rather than
alternative explanations like dew or sprinkler activity.
2. Hypothesis Formation
Abductive reasoning is central to the scientific method, where hypotheses are proposed to explain
empirical observations and then tested through further experimentation and observation. It also plays a
crucial role in everyday problem-solving, detective work, and decision-making. Abductive reasoning
requires creativity, critical thinking, and an awareness of alternative explanations, as hypotheses are
evaluated based on their explanatory power and consistency with available evidence.
THE END