Module 3

Actual Cycles
 Introduction
• Air standard cycle gives an estimated engine performance which is much greater than the
actual performance.
Air Standard Cycle Actual Engine Cycle
Compression Ratio 7:1 7:1
Thermal Efficiency 55% 28%

• Actual efficiency is much lower than the air standard efficiency due to the various losses the
occur in actual engine.

The Major losses are

• Variation of specific heats with temperature
• Dissociation of the combustion products
• Progressive combustion  Incomplete combustion of fuel
• Heat transfer into the walls of the combustion chamber
• Blowdown at the end of the exhaust process
• Gas exchange process
Comparison of Air Standard and
Actual Cycles
• The difference between air standard cycle and actual cycle are mainly
due to:
• The progressive combustion rather than instantaneous combustion.
• The heat transfer to and from the working medium.
• The substantial exhaust blowdown loss, i.e., loss of work on the
expansion stroke due to early opening of the exhaust valve.
• Gas leakage, fluid friction etc. in actual engines.
Air Standard Cycle
The air-standard cycle is an idealized cycle founded on the
following approximations:
(1) Working fluid throughout the cycle is only air and it act as
ideal.
(2) Combustion processes are replaced by well-defined heat
addition processes.
(3) the exhaust process is replaced by a heat rejection process
that returns the air of the cycle to intake conditions.
(4) All processes are reversible.
Since air is assumed to be an ideal, or perfect, gas, constant
values of specific heat at constant volume and pressure are
frequently assumed.
Fuel Air Cycle Consideration

• Actual composition in cylinder is fuel + Air + Water vapour +

Residual gas
• F/A ratio change during operation and hence changes in amount of
CO2 & H2O etc.
• Cp Change with temperature (except mono-atomic gas) and hence
adiabatic index (𝛾 )
• Changes in no. of molecules in cylinder with the change in pressure
and temperature.
• The dissociation effect
Fuel Air Cycle Assumption
• No chemical change in either fuel or air prior the combustion.
• All processes are adiabatic Process
• Compression and Expansion process are frictionless
• Velocities are negligibly small
• Combustion takes place instantaneously at top dead centre.
• The fuel is mixed well with air.
Composition of Cylinder Gases
• The actual composition of the cylinder contents are (Fuel +Air + Water vapor +
residual gas).
• The fuel air ratio changes during the engine operation
• The change in air-fuel ratio affects the composition of gases before and after
combustion particularly the percentage of CO2, CO, H2O etc. in the exhaust gas.
• The amount of exhaust gases in the clearance volume various with speed and
load on the engine.
• The fresh charge composition varies its composition because when it enters in
the cylinder comes in contact with the burnt gases
• The effect of cylinder composition on the performance of the engine can easily
computed by means of suitable numerical techniques.
• Fuel-air analysis can be done more easily through computer rather than manual
calculation
Variation of Specific Heats
• All gases except mono-atomic gases, show an increase in specific heat
with temperature.
• The increase in specific heat does not follow any particular law.
• However, between the temperature range 300 K– 1500 K the specific
heat curve is nearly a straight line which may be approximately
expressed in form
CP = a1 + K1 T
CV = b1 + K1 T

Where a1, b1, and k1 are constants. The gas constant R= Cp- Cv = a1-b1
Variation of Specific Heats
Above 1500 K the specific heat increases is much more rapid and may be
expressed in the form
CP = a1 + K1 T + K2 T2
CV = b1 + K1 T + K2 T2
Since the difference between CP & Cv is constant, the value of 𝛾 decreases with
increase in temperature.

If the variation of specific heats is taken in to account during the compression

stroke, the final temperature and pressure would be lower compared to the value
obtained at constant specific heat.
Variation of Specific Heats
 Dissociation
• Dissociation is the disintegration of combustion products, at high
temperature above 1600 K.
• Dissociation is the reverse process to combustion
• Dissociation is the heat absorption (endothermic) process
• The dissociation of CO2 in to CO and O2 starts commencing around 1000 0C
2CO2 →2CO+O2 +Heat
• The dissociation of H2O occurs at temperature above 1300 0C
2H2 O → 2H2 + O2 +Heat
• The presence of CO and O2 in the gases tends to prevent dissociation of
CO2; this is noticeable in a rich fuel mixture which by producing more CO,
suppresses dissociation of CO2
Dissociation
• There is no dissociation in the burnt gases of a lean fuel-air mixture.
• This mainly due to the fact that the temperature produced is too low
for this phenomenon to occur.
• The maximum dissociation occurs in the burnt gases of the chemically
correct fuel-air mixture when the temperature are expected to be
high but decreases with the leaner and richer mixtures.
Dissociation

• Without dissociation temperature is maximum attained chemically correct A-F ratio

and with dissociation maximum temp is obtained when mixture is slightly rich.
• Without dissociation Brake power output is max @ stoichiometric mix and with
dissociation Brake Power is Max @slightly Rich Mixture. The shaded area shows
the loss of power due to dissociation.
Effect of number of moles
• The number of molecules in the cylinder varies as the pressure and
temperature change.

• The number of molecule presented after combustion depend upon

Fuel-Air ratio
Pressure and temperature (PV=nRT)

• The number of mole does a direct effect on the amount of work

that the cylinder gas impact on the piston
Actual Cycle
Introduction
The analysis of the fuel air cycle predict better results but still not so
close to the actual.
The actual cycle analysis considers additional losses to the losses that
considered in Fuel-Air Cycle.
This analysis predicts very close results compared to the results
obtained actually by running the engine and taking measurements by
sophisticated instruments.
The Major Loss of Actual Cycle
• Burning Time loss factor
Loss due to time required for mixing of fuel and air and also for
combustion.
• Heat loss factor
Loss of heat from gases to cylinder walls.
• Exhaust blowdown factor
Loss of work on the expansion stroke due to early opening of the
exhaust valve.
Burning Time Loss
• The crankshaft normally rotates through 40° or more between the time the
spark is produced and the time the charge is completely burned.
• As the crankshaft rotates, the piston moves and if the piston motion during
combustion is taken into account the burning time losses are determined,
which result in loss of work and efficiency.
• The time in degree crank angle depends upon the flame speed and the
distance between the piston of spark plug and farthest side of combustion
chamber
• The burning time losses are quite large if,
1) F/A ratio is made to lean or too rich
2) The throttle is partially closed, reducing the suction pressure
3) The point of ignition is not properly set.
Burning Time Loss
Heat Loss factor
• Some part of combustion heat that passed through cylinder is taken
away by the engine oil, cooling media and rest by radiation.
• As a result of loss of heat to the cylinder walls the work and efficiency
of the cycle are reduced because some of the heat energy liberated by
combustion is not utilized for producing work during expansion.
• The loss of heat during combustion reduces the maximum
temperature, Specific heat and dissociation of CO2 and H2O, which
results in complete combustion, but the improvement in work and
efficiency is only marginal.
 Exhaust Gas Blowdown
• The actual exhaust process consists of
two phases:
i) Blowdown
ii) Displacement
• Blowdown– At the end of the power
stroke when the exhaust valve opens
the cylinder pressure is much higher
than the exhaust manifold pressure, so
the cylinder gas flows out through the
exhaust valve and the pressure drops
to Pe.
• Displacement – Remaining gas is pushed out of the cylinder by the
piston from BDC moving to TDC.
Exhaust Gas Blowdown

• The cylinder pressure at the end of expansion stroke is high as 7 bar

depending on the compression ratio employed.
• If the exhaust valve is opened at BDC, the piston has to do work
against high cylinder pressure during the early part of the exhaust
stroke.
• If the exhaust valve is opened too early, a part of the expansion stroke
is lost
• The best compromise is to open the exhaust valve 400 to 700 before
BDC thereby reducing the cylinder pressure to halfway (say 3.5 bar)
before the exhaust stroke begins
Exhaust Gas Blowdown
Loss due to Running Friction
• The losses are due to friction between
• the piston and the cylinder walls
• In various bearings
• Energy spent in operating the auxiliary equipment (cooling pump,
ignition system, fan…)
• The piston ring friction increases rapidly with engine speed.
Pumping loss (Gas Exchange)
• During the induction process, pressure losses occur as the charge
passes through the air filter, the carburetor, the intake manifold and
across the valve. So, the pressure during suction stroke is below
atmosphere.
• The exhaust system consists of an exhaust manifold an exhaust pipe,
and often a catalytic converter for emission control and a muffler or
silencer. So, the pressure during the exhaust stroke is much higher than
the atmosphere.
• The work spend in expelling the exhaust gases and inducting fresh
charge during the suction stroke is called the pumping work and the
loop formed is called pumping losses.
• Pumping losses increase during throttle and also with increase in
speed of engine.
Rotary Engine
Wankel Engine
• The Wankel engine is a type of 4-stroke internal combustion engine
that uses a rotary design to convert pressure into rotating motion,
instead of using the reciprocating pistons found in conventional
engines.
• Developed by German engineer Felix Wankel in the 1950s, the engine
is compact, has fewer moving parts, and offers smoother operation
compared to traditional piston engines.
 Key Parts of a Wankel Engine
1. Rotor: A triangular-shaped component that
rotates within the housing. The rotor acts as the
"piston" in a conventional engine, creating
combustion chambers as it rotates.
2. Eccentric Shaft: Similar to a crankshaft in
conventional engines, this shaft is connected to
the rotor. As the rotor spins, it causes the
eccentric shaft to turn, transferring power to the
drivetrain.
3. Rotor Housing: The casing within which the
rotor rotates. It is designed in an epitrochoidal
shape to maintain a consistent seal with the
rotor and define the combustion chambers.
Key Parts of a Wankel Engine
4. Intake and Exhaust Ports: These are openings in the housing
where the air-fuel mixture enters and exhaust gases exit. Unlike
conventional engines, there are no valves in a Wankel
engine; the rotor's movement opens and closes the ports.
5. Apex Seals: These are located at the three corners (apexes) of the
rotor. They maintain a seal between the rotor and the housing to
prevent gas leakage during the combustion process.
6. Spark Plug: Positioned in the housing to ignite the air-fuel mixture,
initiating the combustion process.
7. Cooling System: Similar to conventional engines, the Wankel engine
uses a cooling system (liquid or air-cooled) to prevent overheating.
Working
• The Wankel engine operates in four stages, similar to the four strokes in a
piston engine: intake, compression, power, and exhaust.
1. Intake: The rotor moves in such a way that one of its chambers expands,
allowing the air-fuel mixture to be drawn in through the intake port.
2. Compression: As the rotor continues to rotate, the chamber becomes smaller,
compressing the air-fuel mixture.
3. Combustion (Power): At a certain point, the spark plug ignites the
compressed air-fuel mixture, causing an explosion that forces the rotor to
continue turning.
4. Exhaust: The burned gases are expelled from the chamber through the
exhaust port as the rotor moves to the next position, and the cycle begins
again.
Advantages of the Wankel Engine:
1. Fewer Moving Parts: The Wankel engine has fewer parts (no valves, camshafts,
or piston rods), making it simpler in design and lighter.

2. Compact Size: Due to its design, the engine can be smaller and lighter than a
conventional piston engine of equivalent power.

3. Smoother Operation: Rotary motion eliminates the reciprocating motion of

pistons, leading to smoother and more consistent power delivery with less
vibration.

4. High Power-to-Weight Ratio: Wankel engines typically produce more power for
their size compared to traditional engines
Disadvantages
• Disadvantages of the Wankel Engine:

1. Lower Efficiency: Wankel engines tend to have lower thermal efficiency due to
incomplete combustion and heat loss, leading to higher fuel consumption.

2. Seal Wear and Durability: Apex seals in the rotor tend to wear out faster than
the piston rings in conventional engines, which can cause leaks and reduce
performance over time.

3. High Emissions: The engine’s design results in more unburnt fuel and higher
hydrocarbon emissions, making it less environmentally friendly.

4. Limited Market Acceptance: Due to durability concerns and lower fuel

efficiency, Wankel engines are not widely used and have limited applications,
primarily in sports cars and some experimental aircraft.
STRATIFIED CHARGE ENGINE
• The petrol engine has very good full load power characteristic, but has
rather poor part load efficiency, whereas the diesel engine has good
part load characteristic but has poor air utilization, low smoke limited
power and higher weight to power ratio.
• Search for an engine which combines the advantages of both petrol
and diesel engine took us to Stratified engine which is at the midway
between the homogenous charge spark ignition engine and the
heterogeneous charge compression ignition engine.
• The principle of the stratified charge engine is to deliver a mixture that
is sufficiently rich for combustion in the immediate vicinity of the
spark plug and in the remainder of the cylinder, a very lean mixture
that is so low in fuel that it could not be used in a traditional engine.
Working
• Liquid fuel is injected in the cylinder.
The fuel spray is directed by air motion
or by the geometry of piston crown or by
combination of the both towards spark
plug. By the time fuel spray reaches the
spark plug electrodes some fuel gets
vaporized and forms combustible
mixture with air. The vaporized fuel in
spray is then ignited by spark,
combustion begins and the flame spreads
in the combustion chamber.
Methods of Charge Stratification
Spray Controlled: The fuel spray characteristics
primarily controls the charge stratification in this
strategy. Ignitable mixture is formed at the
boundaries of the fuel spray. The spark plug is
placed close to the spray as it is there that the
ignitable mixture is present at the time of ignition.
Wall Controlled: In the wall-controlled concept,
fuel injection is directed towards a specially
designed piston cavity. The piston cavity is off
centre. The spark plug is located away from the
fuel injector on the side of combustion chamber.
Fuel impinges on the piston cavity walls where it
evaporates and mixes with air. An intense reverse
tumble charge motion transports the mixture to
spark plug electrodes.
Methods of Charge Stratification
Flow Controlled: Mixture is formed by interaction between fuel spray
and suitably directed air motion like swirl or tumble. The spark plug and
injector are generally widely spaced in these configurations. The air
motion transports mixture to the spark plug such that the ignitable mixture
is present at spark plug electrodes at the time of spark.
Advantages
• The mixture being rich near spark plug good ignition characteristics without
misfire are obtained.
• High combustion temperatures obtained as a result of initial burning of rich
mixtures near spark plug produce high flame speeds that burn the lean mixtures
in the cylinder away from spark plug.
• The overall air-fuel ratio can be very lean reaching 40:1 to 50:1giving high fuel
efficiency.
• An unthrottled engine operation is possible such that the engine power may be
controlled by varying only the fuel flow. It would reduce pumping losses.
• The end gases being very fuel lean, precombustion reactions would be very
slow leading to reduced knocking tendency. Hence, a higher compression ratio
can be used further improving the fuel efficiency.
• Presence of rich mixture near spark plug keeps the formation of NOx at low
levels. The mixture that burns early is deficient in oxygen although it attains
high combustion temperatures.
Turbocharger and supercharger
To increase the output of any engine more fuel can be burned and make
bigger combustion in every cycle.
• One way to add power is to build a bigger engine.
• But bigger engine, which weigh more and cost more to build and maintain are
not always better ii.
• Another way to add power is to make a normal sized engine more
efficient.
• This can be accomplish by forcing more air into the combustion chamber.
• More air means more fuel can be added and more fuel means a bigger
explosion and greater horsepower.
• This can be done with the help of turbocharger and supercharger
Superchargers
Superchargers
• A supercharger is an air compressor used for forced induction of an
internal combustion engine.
• The greater mass flow-rate provides more oxygen to support
combustion than would be available in a naturally aspirated engine.
• Supercharger allows more fuel to be burned and more work to be
done per cycle, increasing the power output of the engine.
• Power for the unit can come mechanically by a belt, gear, shaft, or
chain connected to the engine's crankshaft.
Purpose of supercharging
• To raise the density of the air charge, before it enters the cylinders.
• To raise engines power output.
• To increase the volumetric efficiency since the utilization of air is what
going to determine the power output of the engine.
Point to be noted on supercharging
1. Supercharging increase power output of an engine, doesn’t increase fuel
consumption.
2. Engine should be designed to withstand the higher forces due to
supercharging.
3. The increased pressure & temperature as a result of supercharging may lead
to detonation.
4. The fuel used must have a better anti-knock characteristics.
5. Certain % of power is consumed from engine itself in compressing the air,
which leads to power loss.
6. However, it’s seen that the net power output will be more than the power
out of an engine without supercharging.
Types of supercharger
• There are two main types of superchargers defined according to the
method of compression
• i. Positive displacement
• ii. Dynamic compressors
• The former deliver a fairly constant level of pressure increase at all
engine speeds (RPM), whereas the latter deliver increasing pressure
with increasing engine speed.
• Dynamic compressors rely on accelerating the air to high speed and
then exchanging that velocity for pressure by diffusing or slowing it
down.
Limitations of supercharger
1. Thermal load on the varies parts of the engine increases.
2. Durability, reliability and fuel economy are main consideration
that limits the degrees of supercharging of an engine.
3. Because of increased heat generation and heat transfer, there is
greater tendency to burn the piston crown, seat and edges of the
exhaust valves
 TURBOCHARGER
• A turbocharger, or turbo is a
centrifugal compressor
powered by a turbine that is
driven by an engine's
exhaust gases.

• Its benefit lies with the

compressor increasing the
mass of air entering the
engine (forced induction),
thereby resulting in greater
performance (for either, or
both, power and efficiency).
COMPONENTS OF TURBOCHARGER
The turbocharger has three main components
1. A turbine, which is almost always a radial inflow turbine
2. A compressor, which is almost always a centrifugal compressor
3. The center housing/hub rotating assembly
Objective of a Turbocharger
• The objective of a turbocharger, just as that of a supercharger, is to
improve an engine's volumetric efficiency by increasing the intake
density.
• The compressor draws in ambient air and compresses it before it enters
into the intake manifold at increased pressure, that results in a greater
mass of air entering the cylinders on each intake stroke.
• The power needed to spin the centrifugal compressor is derived from the
high pressure and temperature of the engine's exhaust gases.
• The turbine converts the engine exhaust's potential pressure energy and
kinetic velocity energy into rotational power, which is in turn used to
drive the compressor.
Turbocharging Principles
Performance Testing of IC Engines
Following factors are to be considered in evaluating the performance of
an engine:
• (i) Maximum power or torque available at each speed within the
useful range of speed.
• (ii) The range of power output at constant speed for stable
operation of the engine.
• (iii) Brake specific fuel consumption at each operating condition
within the useful range of operation.
• (iv) Reliability and durability of the engine for the given range of
operation.
ENGINE POWER
The energy flow through the engin is expressed in three distinct terms.
They are Indicated power, IP, Fiction power FP and Brake power, BP.
• Indicated power (IP) is the maximum power that can be extracted from
the expanding gases produced by the combustion of fuel in an internal
combustion engine It is the power developed by the gas mixture in the
cylinder, and is calculated without taking into account losses due to
friction, mechanical stress, and heat and enthalpy.
• Indicated power can be computed from the measurement of forces in
the cylinder
 ENGINE POWER
Brake power is also known as the engine's power output. Brake power
is the actual power an engine produces, taking into account power losses
due to friction in the engine's mechanical components.
Brake power may be computed from the measurement of forces at the
crankshaft of the engine.
Friction Power: It is the power loss in overcoming the
friction between piston and cylinder walls, between the
crankshaft and camshaft and their bearings, etc. It is the
difference between Indicated power and Brake power.
The friction power can be estimated by motoring the engine.
Indicator Diagram
• An indicator diagram is a chart that records
the pressure and volume changes in an internal
combustion engine (IC engine) to assess its
performance.
• Plots the pressure in the cylinder against the
volume swept by the piston during the
engine's cycle.
• Engineers use the indicator diagram to
calculate the work done and power produced
by the engine. They also use it to check the
design and performance of the engine.