Info 2011- Introduction

To Computers
1. Introduction
1.1 Definition
A computer is an electronic device that:
• Accepts data and instructions (INPUT)
• Processes the data according to the instructions (PROCESS)
• Stores the data and the results of processing (information)
(STORAGE)
• Displays the information (OUTPUT)
1.2 Application Areas of Computers
• Computers are applied in almost all areas, including:
• Business – E.g. payroll calculations, sales analysis, financial forecasting, managing
employees database, etc.)
• Banking – E.g. likeonline accounting facility, ATM machines, etc)
• Insurance - to maintain a database of all clients with information showing
procedure to continue with policies, starting date of the policies, next due
installment of a policy, maturity date, interests due, survival benefits, bonus, etc.
• Education – E.g. Computer Based Education, which involves control, delivery, and
evaluation of learning; assisting in searching information.
• Marketing – E.g. advertising, home shopping, etc.
• Health Care – E.g. diagnostic system, patient-monitoring system, pharma
information system, surgery, etc.
Application Areas of Computers
(Cont’d)
• Engineering Design – Examples include:
• Structural Engineering - stress and strain analysis for design of ships, buildings,
bridges, airplanes, etc.
• Industrial Engineering - design, implementation and improvement of integrated
systems of people, materials and equipments.
• Architectural Engineering - planning towns, designing buildings, determining a range
of buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D drawings.
• Military – e.g. missile control, military communication, military operation
and planning, smart weapons, etc.
• Communication – E.g. E-mail, Chatting, FTP, Telnet, Video-conferencing, etc.
• Government - E.g. Budgets, Sales tax, Income tax, Male/Female ratio,
Computerization of voters lists, Computerization of driving licensing system,
Computerization of PAN card, Weather forecasting, etc.
1.4 Definition of ICT
• ICT – Information and Communication Technology
• It is a merger of two technologies:
• Information Technology – storage and processing of data using
computers.
• Communication Technology – high speed transmission of data
(messages).
• ICT also refers to the merger of audio-visual and
telephone networks with computer networks through
a single cabling or link.
1.4 Characteristics of computers
A computers has the following characteristics:
• It is automatic
• It is extremely fast
• It is highly accurate
• It is diligent
• It is highly versatile
• It has high power of remembering
• It has no IQ
• It has no feeling
1.5 Types of Computers
Computers are classified based on different criteria:
• Based on their purposes:
• General-purpose – used for a variety of tasks
• E.g. the PCs in wide use in our labs and Internet cafés
• Special-purpose – perform specific tasks.
• E.g a computer that guides a missile
Types of Computers (cont’d)
• Based on the data they handle:
• Analog computers process analog data.
• By analog, we mean continuously varying quantity.
• Digital computers process digital data.
• Digital data assume one of two values, 1 (high) or 0 (low).
• Hybrid computers exhibit features of analog and digital
computers.
Types of Computers (cont’d)
Based on the size or function
• Super computers
• Most powerful and expensive
• Used for problems requiring complex operations (e.g.
tracking spaceship, weather)

• Mainframe computers
• Capable of great processing speeds and data storage
• Not as powerful as supercomputers
• Housed in special rooms with special power and
environmental control.
• They are used as e-commerce servers handling
transactions over the Internet
Types of Computers (cont’d)
• Minicomputers
• Known as midrange computers
• Medium-size companies
• Used by departments of large companies
• Microcomputers
• Least powerful
• Widely used
• Four types
• Desktop
• Notebook or laptop
• Tablet PC
• Handheld
2.1 Number System
Two Types:
• Non-positional
• Numbers represented by special symbols.
• No value given to position.
• Can’t perform arithmetic operations.
• E.g. Roman number system, Geez number system.
2.2Number System (Cont’d)
• Positional
• Few symbols define single digit numbers.
• The value of a number is defined by both the symbol and its position.
• They have a base or radix, which defines the number of digits used.
• Radix 2 (binary) – 2 symbols (0 and 1)
• Radix 8 (octal) - 8 symbols (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7)
• Radix ten (decimal)– 10 symbols (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9)
• Radix 16 (hexadecimal) – 16 symbols (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F)
2.3Number system conversion
Any number can be converted from one system to another:
• To convert from decimal to binary conversion
• Divide the number by 2 and record the remainder.
• Divide the quotient by 2 and record the remainder.
• Keep on dividing the quotient by 2, and each time record the remainder until
you get 1 as a quotient.
• The binary number becomes the last quotient (1) followed by the remainders
in reverse order (last remainder written first)
Number system conversion (cont’d)
• E.g. Convert 36 decimal into binary.
Q R
2 36
2 18 0
2 9 0
2 4 1
2 2 0
1 0

• To convert from binary to decimal:

• Multiply each binary digit by its positional value
• Add all the products
Number system conversion (cont’d)
• For example, Convert the binary number 1011001 to decimal:
• (1011001)2 = (1x26 + 0x25+1x24+1x23+0x22+0x21+1x20)10
= (1x64+0+16+8+0+0+1) 10
= (64+16+8+1) 10
= (89) 10
2.4 Data Units
• Every data in computers is represented by a string of binary digits (0
and 1).
• Common data units are the following:
• Bit (BInary digiT) – the smallest unit.
• It conveys little information, Yes (1) or No (0).
• Byte – basic unit of information in a computer.
• A combination of 8 bits.
• It represents 28 (= 256) possible combinations.
• Each character is represented by a byte (B)
Data Units(cont’d)
• Information storage capacity of computers is expressed in multiples of byte (B).
• 1KB (Kilobyte)= 210 = 1024 B
• 1MB (Megabyte) = 210 KB=220 B
• 1GB (Gigabyte) = 210 MB = 220 KB = 230 B
• 1TB (terabyte) = 210 GB = 220 MB = 230 KB = 240 B
• Word – number of bits that a computer processes at a time
• Its length varies and is expressed in bits
• The larger the length the more efficient the computer.
• Thus, a computer with a word length 64 bits is faster than with 32 bits, 32 bit is faster
than 16 bits, etc.
2.5 Binary Coding
• Alphanumeric characters are represented in computers using codes as
follows:
• Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) – to code decimal numbers by combining their
binary codes of each digit.
• For example: 36 is coded as 0011 0110
• ASCII – American Standard Code for Information Interchange.
• A 7-bit representation of 128 (=27) alpha-numeric characters
• Extended ASCII – an 8-bit representation of 256 (=28) characters
• Mostly used with PCs
Binary Coding (Cont’d)
• Examples:
Symbol 8-Bit ASCII
? 00111111
+ 00101011
1 00110001
F 01000110
H 01001000

– EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code)

• An 8-bit representation of 256 (=28) characters
• Mostly used with large scale computers.
Binary Coding (Cont’d)
• Unicode
• Unicode 1 – 16 bits capable of representing 65536 (=216) characters.
• Unicode 2 – 32 bits capable of representing 4,294,967,296 (=232) characters.
• Virtually every character of every language can be represented by using this
code.
 3. The Computer System
3.1. Computer System Components
• A complete computer system includes four distinct parts:
Hardware, Software, Data and Users.
• Data – raw facts to be processed by computer.
• Includes numbers, text, images, audio or video
• All data are represented as strings of bits.
• Data is processed to produce information.
• Users – people operating the computers.
Computer System Components (cont’d)

• Hardware – Physical components that you can touch or feel. It

consists of:
• The system unit which houses the motherboard, microprocessor, power
supply, memory, etc.
• The keyboard, monitor, and mouth.
• Other peripheral devices like printer, digital camera, scanner, LCD projector,
etc.
Computer System Components (cont’d)

• Software or program is a set of detailed instructions that tell the

computer what to do.
• A software may come in different media, but at the time of running, it is
loaded onto memory.
• A processor fetches an instruction from memory, decodes it and then
executes the required operation.
• When an instruction has been executed the next instruction is fetched,
decoded and executed, etc.
 3.2 Computer Hardware
3.2.1 A physical setup of a computer

Monitor System Unit

CD-ROM
Drive

Floppy Disk
Drive

Mouse
Keyboard
 Computer Hardware (Cont’d)
• System unit houses the major components of the computer.
Computer Hardware (Cont’d)
Computer Hardware (Cont’d)

CPU
(Central Processing Unit)
Motherboard
Computer Hardware (Cont’d)

SIMM
(Single Inline Memory Module)

Power Supply

HDD
(Hard Disk Drive)
 Computer Hardware (Cont’d)
• Power supply converts mains AC to low-voltage regulated DC power for
the internal components of a computer.
• Expansion cards – small circuit boards used to add a new ability to a
computer.
• E.g. video cards, modems, network cards, sound cards, etc.
• Expansion slots – a socket on the motherboard where expansion cards can
be plugged into.
• There exist different types of slots & cards; an expansion card fits into
similar type of slot.
Computer Hardware (Cont’d)
Types of Expansion Slots
Types of Expansion Slots
• PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect)
• most commonly found and used bus in PCs during the late 1990's and early
2000's
• allows devices to be inserted quickly and easily (PnP).
• AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port)
• specifically designed to deal with graphics adapters
• Older PCs used AGP; newer ones use PCI express.
Types of Expansion Slots (Cont’d)

• PCI Express (or PCIe)

• The best type of expansion slot to have in your PC
• It is by far the fastest and most efficient slot.
• PCI Express in all its flavors: 1x, 2x, 4x, 8x, 16x and 32x has much greater
bandwidth than basic PCI.
• For example:
• PCI has a speed of 132 MB/s
• PCIe 1x has a speed of 250[500] MB/s
• PCIe 16x has a speed of 4000[8000] MB/s
Computer Ports
• Computer Port is an interface between the computer and other computers
or peripheral devices.
3.2.2 Operational Setup of a
Computer
 Operational Setup of a Computer (cont’d)
• Processor or Central Processing Unit (CPU)
• The computing part of the computer
• It is referred to as the brain of the computer
• It has three main parts:
• Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) – actual arithmetic and logical operations
• The Control Unit (CU) – directs the operations of the entire system.
• Fetch, decode and execute,
• central nervous system.
• Registers – special purpose, high speed temporary memory units.
• hold data, instructions, addresses and intermediate results.
• E.g. Program Counter, Instruction Register, Accumulator, Memory Address Register, Memory Buffer
Register and Data Register
Operational Setup of a Computer (cont’d)

• Input Unit – consists of such devices that are used to enter data and
instructions into the computer.
• Examples include, keyboard, mouse, joystick, light pen, track ball, scanner,
graphic tablet, optical character reader, bar code reader, etc.
• Keyboard
• The standard input device.
• Looks like the traditional typewriter, with some additional keys for performing
additional functions.
• Of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys or 108
keys are also available.
Input Unit (Cont’d)
• The keys in a keyboard consist of:

Keys Description

Typing Keys Include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (0-9) which generally give same layout as
that of typewriters.
Numeric Found at the right side of the keyboard and are used for entering numbers and
keypad moving the pointer.

Function keys Twelve function keys, F1 – F12, at the first row of the keyboard; they may be
programmed to perform different tasks.

Modifier keys include keys like Alt, Ctrl , Shift, Caps Lock, Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print
Screen.
Cursor Found between the alphanumeric keys and numeric keypad, they are used to move
Movement the cursor.
Keys
Input Unit (Cont’d)
• The mouse
• Most popular pointing device.
• Used to control the position of cursor on screen.
• A ball at its base senses the movement of mouse and
sends corresponding signals to CPU when the mouse
buttons are pressed.
• It has two buttons called left and right button and a
wheel is present between the buttons.
• Faster than the keyboard to move the cursor
Input Unit (Cont’d)
• Joystick
• a pointing device used to move cursor position on a monitor
screen.
• mainly used in Computer Aided Designing (CAD) and playing
computer games.
• Light Pen
• a pointing device similar to a pen.
• used to select a displayed menu item or draw pictures on the
monitor screen.
 Input Unit (Cont’d)
• Track ball
• mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a
mouse.
• pointer can be moved by moving fingers on the ball.
• Touch pad
• found in most portable computers.
• operated by using your finger and dragging it across a flat
surface
 Input Unit (Cont’d)
• Scanner
• works more like a photocopy machine.
• captures images from the source which are then converted into
the digital form.
• Digitizer
• also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet, it converts analog
information into digital form.
• E.g. a signal from the television or camera.
 Input Unit (Cont’d)
• Microphone
• to input sound that is then stored in digital form.
• Optical Character Reader (OCR)
• used to read a printed text, convert it into a
machine readable code and stores the text on the
system memory.
• Bar code reader
• scans a bar code image, converts it into an
alphanumeric value which is then fed to the
computer.
 Output Unit
• Output devices – peripheral devices through which processed
data is made available for humans.
• Convert machine readable information into human readable
form.
• Output from such devices takes one of two forms:
• Softcopy
• E.g. monitor display, audio output, projector display
• Hardcopy
• E.g. printed material using printers, plotters or microfilms
 Output Unit (Cont’d)
• Monitor
• Also called visual display unit VDU), it displays the information
produced by the video card.
• Based on the color they produce, they can be categorized into
three types.
• Monochrome - one color text/image on single color background, i.e.
white on blue, or green on black.
• Grayscale – shades of gray on a white background.
• Color – can display different colors, from 16 to more than 16 million
colors.
 Output Unit (Cont’d)

• Based on the technology used to make computer monitors,

they can be broadly categorized into three types.
• CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)
• LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)
• LED (Light-Emitting Diodes)
Output Unit (Cont’d)
• CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) Monitors
• Electrons are fired at phosphor dots on the screen.
• The dots are grouped into picture elements called
pixels, which glow when struck by electrons.
• In color CRT monitors, each pixel contains a red,
green and blue dot. These glow at varying intensities
to produce color images.
• They are highly reliable and efficient, capable of
generating a resolution of up to 2048 x 1536 pixels,
thereby providing a clear picture quality.
 Output Unit (Cont’d)
• LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) Monitors
• Made of two layers of a polarizing material with a liquid crystal
solution in between.
• An electrical signal makes the crystals line up in a way as to
regulate the light going through.
• All crystals lined up means no light gets through and hence black screen
• A color LCD screen uses groups of 3 color cells.
• They are compact and lightweight.
• They consume less electrical power than CRT.
• There are two types of LCD technology available:
• The active matrix (TFT) and a passive matrix.
• TFT technology is more secure and reliable, and generates better picture
quality.
 Output Unit (Cont’d)
• Important monitor specifications include:
• Size
• the diagonal measurement of its face in inches. 17” – 22” monitors are common.
• Resolution
• number of pixels on the screen.
• Common resolutions include:
• VGA (Video Graphics Array):640 x 480 pixels
• SVGA (Super VGA): 800 x 600 pixels
• XGA (extended VGA): 1024 x 768 pixels
• SXGA: 1280 x 1024 pixels
• Refresh rate
• Shows how often the picture is redrawn on the monitor.
• With low rate, picture will flicker. So, high refresh rate is desirable.
• 60 times per second is tolerable at low resolutions for most people.
• 75 times per second or more is better and is necessary for high resolutions.
 Output Unit (Cont’d)
• Aspect Ratio
• Ratio of horizontal pixels to vertical pixels; typical values are 16:10 or 16:9
• Contrast ratio
• Difference in brightness from the brightest to the darkest; typical contrast ratio is 1000:1
• Dot (pixel) pitch
• Space between the pixels (or dots) that make up the images on your computer monitor.
• The smaller the pixel pitch, the better the image quality will be on your screen.
 Output Unit (Cont’d)
• Video Adapter Cards
• convert information from the CPU into a format used by the monitor.
• can be built into the motherboard but, in most cases, it is installed as
an expansion card.
• video adapter card specs are similar to those of the monitor
• video adapter cards come their own memory, separate from the
computer’s main memory.
• Amount of video memory determines the maximum number of colors that
can be displayed at a given resolution.
 Output Unit (Cont’d)
• Printers – produce hard copy.
• Serial, parallel or USB printers.
• Based on the technology, printers may be classified as:
• Dot-matrix printers
• Inkjet printers
• Laser Printers
 Output Unit (Cont’d)
• Dot-matrix printers
• A class of impact printers.
• uses a matrix of pins to create printed dots arranged to form
characters on a piece of paper.
• a print head mechanism pushes each pin into the ribbon, which then
strikes the paper.
• Speed expressed in cps (characters per second)
• The original dot-matrix print heads had 7 pins, while newer, letter-
quality print heads use 24 pins to produce near letter quality (NLQ)
documents.
 Output Unit (Cont’d)
• It can make carbon copies
• It has long life
• It produces a lot of noise
• Has low resolution (150 – 300dpi)
• Do not support color printing
• Are very slow (50 – 500 cps)
 Output Unit (Cont’d)
• Ink Jet Printers
• Non-impact printers
• Works by spraying ionized ink at a sheet of paper.
• Magnetized plates in the ink's path direct the ink onto the paper in
the desired shapes.
• Capable of producing high quality print; typical resolution being 600
dpi, although some newer models offer higher resolutions.
• Speed measured in ppm (pages per minute)
 Output Unit (Cont’d)
• Produce good print quality
• Produce low noise
• Are available for black and color
• Are slow compared with Laser printers
• Printout fades quickly
 Output Unit (Cont’d)
• Laser Printers
• The most advanced technology.
• Laser beam forms an image of the characters.
• The laser beam hits a drum and alters the electrical charge on the
drum wherever it hits.
• The drum is rolled through a reservoir of toner, which is picked up by
the charged portions of the drum.
• Finally, the toner is transferred to the paper through a combination of
heat and pressure.
• High quality printout (600 dpi or more)
• High speed (10 ppm or more)
 Output Unit (Cont’d)
• Other output devices include:
• PC projector
• Plotter
• Speaker
• Braille embosser
 Storage Unit
• Storage unit comprises of two types: primary and Secondary
• Primary – fast but limited; it consists of:
• RAM (Random Access Memory)
• stores data and programs needed by processor
• Temporary and volatile
• Made from semiconductors
• ROM (read Only Memory)
• Permanent and non-volatile
• contains minimum instructions that the computer needs to get started
 Storage Unit (Cont’d)
• Secondary – bulk but slow.
• It is not directly accessible by processor
• Permanent storage
• Examples include:
• Floppy disks
• Hard disks
• Magnetic tape
• Compact disks
• DVDs
• Flash disks
 Storage Unit (Cont’d)
• Hard disk drive (HDD)
• Internal or external
• Rigid rotating disks (platters), stacked on a spindle.
• Platters rotate at high speed, Read/Write heads
move back and forth recording/ reading magnetic
information on both sides of the platters.
• Hard disk has to be formatted before use.
• Formatting creates these areas:
• Boot sector
• File Allocation Table (FAT)
• Root Folder
• Data Area
 Storage Unit (Cont’d)
• Floppy disk
• Slower and lower capacity than HDD
• Thin, flexible disk inside a protective plastic
cover. Write-protect
Window

• Removable media
• Write-protect window 3 ½”, 1.44MB Diskette

• Mainly used to carry private data/info from place

to place
• Now, it is obsolete
 Storage Unit (Cont’d)
• Magnetic Tape
• Used to backup files from HDD
• Very slow, but low cost
• Tapes need to be formatted before use
• Backup files are not directly read from tap; they need to be restored to
HDD
• CD-ROM (Compact Disc Read Only Memory)
• Can only read to CD-ROM
• Use optical technology
• First CD-ROMs (1X) transferred at the rate of 150MB/s
• 2X CD-ROMS can transfer at the rate of 300MB/s, etc.
• They have storage capacity of about 650MB
 Storage Unit (Cont’d)
• CD-R (CD-Recordable)
• allows to write to and read from a Compact Disc, but not erase or
change what you record.
• CD-RW (CD-Read/Write)
• Rewritable CD
• DVD (Digital Video/Versatile Disc)
• Higher storage capacities than other CDs
• Can store up to 17GB
 The Bus System
• A bus is a subsystem that transfers data between computer
components inside a computer.
• Three types of buses:
• Data bus- transfer data from CPU to other components and vise
versa
• Address bus - transfer the address of the ongoing executable data
or instruction.
• Control bus - sends control signal over each executable code and
data
The Bus System (cont’d)
3.3Computer Performance
• Computer performance is affected by:
• Registers – The size of the registers (or word size), determines the
amount of data which the computer can work at one time. Larger size
means faster
• RAM – the larger the RAM size, the faster the computer.
• System clock – the faster the clock speed, the faster the computer.
• Bus width – the larger the bus width, the faster the computer.
• Cache memory – holds the most recent data and instructions that have
been loaded by the CPU. The larger the cache size, the faster the
computer.
 4. Computer Software
• Program controls the processing activity of computers.
• Collectively programs are called software.
• A blending of software and hardware gives life to a computer system.
• There are two categories of software:
• System software – essential for the computer to function; it helps the computer
manage its own tasks and devices.
• Application software – enables user perform specific tasks.
 Computer Software (cont’d)
Computer software

System software Application Software

System development
System management

Operating Utilities High level Low level

system Device programming
driver
programming
language language
 Computer Software (cont’d)
• System software consists of:
• Operating system, whose tasks are:
• Process management - creation, deletion, suspension, resumption, scheduling and
synchronization of processes.
• Memory management - allocation and de-allocation of memory space as required.
• File management - creation and deletion of files and directories. It also organizes, stores,
retrieves, names and protects all the files.
• Device management - manages all the devices of the computer system such as monitor, printer,
disk etc.
• Security management - protects system resources and information against destruction and
unauthorized use.
• User interface - provides the interface between the user and the hardware.
 Computer Software (cont’d)
• Device Drivers
• responsible for proper functioning of devices.
• part of the operating system or separate software
• acts like a translator between the device and programs that use the device.
• System Utilities
• help users in system maintenance tasks and in performing tasks of routine nature. These
include:
• Formatting
• Defragmenting
• Compressing
• Backing up
• Scanning for viruses, etc.
 Computer Software (cont’d)
• System Development Programs
• allow to write and construct programs.
• Programming language – allows to write programs. They are divided into three categories:
machine language, assembly language and high level language.
• Language translator – convert programs written in programming language into machine language.
• Assembler
• Interpreter
• Compiler
• Linker - links together several object modules and libraries to form a single, coherent program
(executable)
• Loader - responsible for loading and relocation of the executable program in the main memory.
 Computer Software (cont’d)
• Application Software is used to accomplish specific tasks rather than just
managing a computer system.
• There exist different types of application software:
• Word processor - a computerized typewriter.
• permits the electronic creation, editing formatting, filing and printing of text.
• E.g. Microsoft word
 Computer Software (cont’d)
• Spreadsheet – electronic worksheet.
• Arranged into rows and columns, the intersection of which is called a cell.
• You can enter data into cells and
• make calculations by using formulae and built-in functions,
• draw different types of graphs,
• perform what-if analysis, and
• make decisions.
• E.g. Microsoft Excel, Lotus 1-2-3
 Computer Software (cont’d)
• Database Management Systems
• An application software that enables users:
• create a database,
• maintain it (add, delete and update its records),
• organize data in desired fashion, and
• selectively retrieve useful information from it
• E.g. MS Access, Oracle, etc.
• Graphics Software
• Used in creating, editing, displaying, and printing graphs, diagrams, charts, and
images
• E.g. Corel Draw, paint, AutoCAD, etc.
Relationship Between Hardware and Software
Application layer executes on the system software layer, which lies on the hardware layer.

Application Software

System Software

Hardware
 5. Computer Care and Safety

To keep your computer running smoothly and to ensure

that it has a long and productive life, follow the following
tips.
• Keeping your system free of dust, dirt and liquids.
• Never spray your monitor screen with glass cleaner. Instead,
spray a lint-free cloth lightly with glass cleaner, and then
clean the screen.
• Clean keyboards, computer case vents, or around disk drive
openings using canned air or small computer-specific vacuum
cleaners.
Computer Care and Safety (Cont’d)

• Clean the rubber ball inside the bottom of a mouse

occasionally.
• Never try to remove the cover on your computer to clean
inside. Instead, take it to an authorized service technician
for cleaning.
• Keep all liquids and food items away from your computer.
• Wipe off the keyboard keys with a soft cloth dampened
with rubbing alcohol.
• Wash your hands before using the computer to avoid
"sticky keys."
 Computer Care and Safety (Cont’d)
• Keep the computer away from heat sources (like radiators and
heat registers).
• Never use your computer during a storm. Also use surge
arresters.
• Protect your computer from viruses/worms.
• Install, use and regularly update virus software
• Never open an email attachment unless you know and trust the
person who sent it.
• Do not accept downloads from Internet sites that you don't know and
trust.
 Computer Care and Safety (Cont’d)
• Avoid installing several programs one right after the
other.
• try installing one program, then use your computer long
enough to see how your system responds to the installation
before loading the next program.
• Keep CDs away from dust, liquids, or other damaging or
corrosive substances.
• If you have problems with CDs, buy a CD cleaner and read
the instructions carefully.
6. Data Communications and Computer
Networks
• Data communication - the exchange of data between
two devices.
• It deals with:
• the transfer of data,
• the method of transfer, and
• the preservation of the data during the transfer.
Data communication & Computer Networks (cont’d)

• Five basic components:

• Message – data to be sent.
• Sender – sending device like a computer
• Receiver – receiving device like a computer
• Media – physical path followed by data.
• Protocol – rules governing the communication.
• Data transmission modes
• Simplex – unidirectional.
• Half duplex – bidirectional, at different times.
• Full duplex – bidirectional and at the same time.
Data communication & Computer Networks (cont’d)
• Bandwidth – rate at which data is transmitted
• Expressed in bits per second (bps). Other units include
• Kilobits per second (1 Kbps = 103 bps)
• Megabits per second (1 Mbps = 106 bps)
• Gigabits per second (1 Gbps = 109 bps)
• Terabits per second (1 Tbps = 1012 bps)
• Narrow band – slow rates (<256 Kbps)
• Broadband – high rates (>=256 Kbps)
Transmission Media
• Two broad categories: guided and unguided.
• In guided media, cable is used to guide the data flow.
• In unguided media, no cable exists to guide the data flow
• Guided media may be copper or optical fiber cables.
Transmission Media (cont’d)
• For data communication, we use the following copper cables:

– Coaxial cable – consists of a single copper conductor at

its center, an outer braided metal shield and a plastic
layer insulation in-between.
• Two types of coaxial cable are:
– ThinNet (or 10Base2) – where the 2 refers to the max segment length, Coaxial cable
which is 185m (200m)
– ThinNet cables use BNC connectors
– ThickNet (or 10Bas5) – where the 5 refers to the max segment length,
BNC Connector
which is 500m
– In both cases, the 10 refers to the max. transmission rate, which is
10Mbps
Transmission Media (cont’d)
• Twisted Pair Cable – made of two or more pairs of
insulated copper wires twisted together.
• May be unshielded or shielded (UTP/STP).
• UTP is the most popular and is generally the best
option for most networking.
• It is cheap, easy to wok with and supports high transmission
rate.
• Currently, Cat5 (100MBps), Cat6 (1Gbps) and Cat 7 (10Gbps)
are in use
• It uses RJ-45 connectors
Transmission Media (cont’d)
• STP has shield to protect data from EMI and RFI.
• It is suitable for environments with electrical
interference.
• The extra shielding can make the cables quite bulky.
Transmission Media (cont’d)
• Optical fiber cables are also used in data communications.
• Much longer distance than copper cables.
• Support higher transmission rate.
• Immune to interference.

Connectors
Transmission Media (cont’d)
Summary for guided media
Specification Cable Type Maximum length
10BaseT Unshielded Twisted Pair 100 meters
100 meters
100BaseT Unshielded Twisted Pair
10Base2 Thin Coaxial 185 meters
10Base5 Thick Coaxial 500 meters
10BaseF Fiber Optic 2000 meters
Transmission Media (cont’d)
• Unguided media are used where guided media cannot be used.
• They may use:
• Infra-red
• For short distances, with no obstacle
• Radio wave
• For medium distances, say 100m
• Micro wave
• For longer distances
• Terrestrial or satellite communication
Networking Devices
• Networking devices inter-connect end devices.

• They include:
– Network Interface Card (NIC)
• Inserted into the computer expansion slot.
• provides physical, electrical, and electronic connections to the
network media.
– Repeater
• extend the maximum reach of a network.
• receive signals on one port, amplify them, and repeat them out
on the other port
– Hub
• Multiport repeater
• Central device in a star topology network
Networking Devices
• Bridge
• separates a single network into two
segments.
• improve network performance
• Switch
• high-performance, multi-interface bridges.
• filter transmission of data into unintended
segments.
• Router
• connects multiple networks into an
internetwork.
• can decide how best to get network data to
its destination.
Computer Network
• A computer network is a connection of two or more
computers to share information and resources.
• Based on the area they cover, networks may be classified
as:
• Local Area Network (LAN) – a single room, building or
campus.
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) – spans a city.
• Wide Area Network (WAN) – spans more than one city.
Computer Networks (cont’d)
• WANs differ from LANs in the following ways:
• WANs cover greater distance.
• WAN speeds are slower.
• WAN connections can be on demand or permanent; LAN
connections are permanent.
• Media used by WANs are typically public while those used by LANs
are private.
Computer Networks (cont’d)
• Based on security and access, networks are classified into peer-to-peer
and client/server networks .
• Peer-to-peer networks
• All computers are equal
• No dedicated client or server
• Security is not centralized
• Network is not scalable; good only for <= 10 computers
• No specialized network operating system is required.
Computer Networks (cont’d)
• Client/Server Networks
• Dedicated servers to provide services/resources
• Security is centralized
• Network is scalable; can have hundred of computers
• Specialized network operating system is required.
Computer Networks (cont’d)
• Advantages of networks include:
• Speed – info. Can be transported at high speed.
• Cost – software can be shared.
• Security – centrally-stored software are more secure.
• Centralized software management is possible.
• Resources can be shared.
• Communication is enhanced.
• Workgroup computing is possible.
Computer Networks (cont’d)
• Disadvantages of networks include:
• Installation cost could be high.
• Requires administrative expertise and tme.
• In the event that central devices like server fail, the entire system fails.
• Cables may break.
Computer Networks (cont’d)
• Network Topology - the physical configuration of computers, cables and
network devices.
• Common configurations include the bus, star ring and mesh topologies.
• Bus topology
• all computers are connected to a single cable.
• cable is terminated at its ends to avoid signal bouncing.
• Data on the cable is seen by all computers, but only that to which it is addressed will pick it
and respond to.
Computer Networks (cont’d)
• Advantages of a Bus Topology
• Easy to connect a computer or peripheral.
• Requires less cable.
• Disadvantages of a Bus Topology
• Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.
• Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
• Network can slow down in heavy traffic.
Computer Networks (cont’d)
• Star Topology
• Each computer is connected to a central device (hub) by a separate cable.
• All data are transmitted through the central device.

– Advantages
• Easy to install and wire.
• No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices.
• Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
• Failure of one computer does not affect the rest of the network

– Disadvantages
• Requires more cable length than a linear topology.
• If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
• More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the concentrators.
Computer Networks (cont’d)
• Ring Topology
• Computers are connected to form a ring.
• Data moves down a one-way path from one computer and if the next computer is the
recipient it accepts the data; otherwise it amplifies it and sends it to the next computer
down the path.
• Any break disrupts the entire network.
• Advantages of a Ring Topology
• System provides equal access for all computers.
• Performance is even despite many users.
• Disadvantages of a Ring Topology
• Failure of one computer can impact the rest of the network.
• Problems are hard to isolate.
• Network reconfiguration disrupts operation.
Computer Networks (cont’d)
• Mesh Topology
• Each computer is directly connected to every other computer.
• It uses several cabling. For n computers,
½ n(n-1) cables are required.
• Mesh topology is rarely used, and then only in a WAN environment.
• Advantages of a Mesh Topology
• System provides increased redundancy and reliability as well as ease of troubleshooting.
• Disadvantages of a Mesh Topology
• System is expensive to install because it uses a lot of cabling.
Computer Networks (cont’d)
• Considerations When Choosing a Topology:
• Money
• A linear bus topology is the least expensive to install a network.
• Length of cable needed
• The linear bus network uses shorter lengths of cable.
• Future growth
• With a star topology, expanding a network is easily done by adding another concentrator.
• Cable type
• The most common cable is the UTP, which is most often used with star topologies.
 Computer Networks (cont’d)
• Media Access – shared media requires that some rules be in place for
devices to effectively use the media.
• Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)
• Used in Ethernet networks.
• Computers can send data only when the media is idle, can detect collision and back off in that
event.
• Token Passing
• Used in ring topology.
• A special frame called frame circulates in the ring; when it passes through a computer that wants
to send data, it will be held by that computer until it is over with sending its data. When the
computer finishes sending its data, it releases the token which then again circulates.
7. The Internet
• Global Interconnection of networks and computers
• No owner of Internet; only standards bodies
• Internet access is through ISP (Internet Service Provider)
• Internet access technologies include:
• Non-permanent (dial-up) connection
• Uses MODEM and telephone lines
• Permanent – connection, which includes:
• DSL (digital subscriber line – using telephone lines)
• Coaxial cable
• Fiber-optic
• Wireless
 The Internet (cont’d)
• To establish dial-up connection, you need:
• An account with an ISP
• A telephone connection
• Modem (MOdulator/DEModulator)
• Communication software (e.g. Internet browsers such as Internet Explorer and
Mozilla Firefox)
• Advantages of dial-up connection:
• Is not costly to connect
• It flexible
• Small monthly payment
• Disadvantage
• Low speed and connection set-up time
The Internet (cont’d)
• Advantages of the permanent connection
• Faster speed
• Fixed monthly payment
• Disadvantages of the permanent connection
• Higher cost than dial-up
• Not flexible, except for the wireless
Internet Protocols
• Protocol – set of rules that govern the communication between
computers in a network.
• In the Internet, there exist a set of protocols organized in a layered
architecture.
• The set of protocols is called “Protocol suite”.
• The Protocol Suite in the Internet is TCP/IP (Transport Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol)
 Internet Applications
• Some of the applications running on the Internet include:
• The World Wide Web (WWW)
• Electronic Mail (e-Mail)
• File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
• Telnet
• Chat and Instant Messaging
• Internet Telephony
• Video Conferencing
• Etc.
 Internet Applications (cont’d)
• The World Wide Web (WWW)
• A vast collection of documents stored Web Servers
• Web pages contain
• Different types of documents: text, image, audio, video
• Links to other web pages
• Hypertext Mark-up language (HTML) is used to design a web document
• It uses the HTTP (Hyper-Text Transfer Protocol)
• The web is interactive – you can fill up forms on-line, run applications, select options
Internet Applications (cont’d)
• Web browser – program than runs on the computer
requesting for web content (e.g. Internet Explorer) or the
computer itself.
• Web server – program that runs on the computer that hosts
the web page (e.g. IIS or Apache) or the computer itself.
• URL (Uniform Resource Locater) – shows the exact location
of a web content/resource.
http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/U/URL.html

Protocol Host Domain Path

Internet Applications (cont’d)
• To use a web browser:
• Get connected to the Internet.
• Start the Wed browser application.
• Type the URL in the address box, or
Type the address of one of the webs that have searching
facilities, e.g. www.google.com and then type in a
search text/phrase search for box and press Enter.
• Use the hyperlinks to jump to other pages.
 Internet Applications (cont’d)
• E-Mail (Electronic Mail)
• One of the most widely used Internet applications.
• Used to send/receive messages electronically
• can transmit text, images, audio and video clips.
• Allows users to send a message to just one user or a group of users. Large
documents can be attached.
• Users can read, print, forward, answer or delete a message.
• Itl is much cheaper and faster in comparison to other communication services.
• Each E-mail user is assigned a unique address, which is used by the e-mail network
to deliver the message.
• You need to have e-mail account with e-mail service provider
• E-mail addresses are of the format:
• User_name@provider_name, e.g. [email protected]
 Internet Applications (cont’d)
• FTP (File Transfer Protocol
• allows a user to transfer data/files between computers on the Internet.
• Provides commands that allow users to manage files.
• Telnet
• Allows you to log into computers on the Internet and then enter
commands which will be executed as if you were entering them directly
on the server.
• To use Telnet to connect to remote computer, you must know its
address.
• E.g. Telnet 140.147.254.3
 Internet Applications (cont’d)
• Usenet News
• It is a global electronic bulletin board system in which millions of
computer users exchange information on a vast range of topics.
• Usenet messages are stored on central computers, and users
must connect to these computers to read or download the
messages posted to these groups.
• There are thousands of Usenet newsgroups. These range from
academic to recreational topics. Serious computer-related work
takes place in Usenet discussions.
 Internet Applications (cont’d)
• Chat
• It is a way of talking online in realtime with many people at once.
• Some chat rooms are available via the Web, such as Yahoo! Chat, while others require a
separate software program for chatting with other users.
• Online chat rooms allow multiple users to join in a conversation and see what all the other
people are typing.
• Many chat rooms focus on a particular topic or interest.
• Instant Messaging
• IM is a way of communicating online with a select group of people, usually individually.
• To instant message someone, you need to know his or her screen name.
• IRC
• Kind of group chatting
• Provides a way of communicating in real time with people from all over the world. It consists
of various separate networks (or "nets") of IRC servers, machines that allow users to connect
to IRC.
 Internet Applications (cont’d)
• Internet Telephony
• Uses the Internet for telephone conversation
• For users who have free, or fixed-price Internet access,
Internet telephony software essentially provides free
telephone calls anywhere in the world.
• To date, however, Internet telephony does not offer the same
quality of telephone service as direct telephone connections.
• Skype is a popular Internet Telephone application
 Internet Applications (cont’d)
• Video Conferencing
• Allow two or more locations to communicate by simultaneous two-
way video and audio transmissions.
• Differs from videophone calls in that it's designed to serve a
conference or multiple locations rather than individuals.
• Applications include teaching/learning
• Teleconferencing
• Allow two or more locations to communicate by simultaneous two-
way audio transmissions.