Kinematics

 Forward Kinematics
 Inverse Kinematics

VelocityAnalysis (Jacobian)
Modeling and Control of
Manipulators
 Euler
Lagrange Method
 Newton’s Equations

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 Kinematics
 The study of motion that ignores the forces that
cause the motion
 “geometry of motion”
 Interested in position, velocity, acceleration,
etc. of the various links of the manipulator
 e.g., where is the gripper relative to the base of the
manipulator? what direction is it pointing in?
 described using rigid transformations of the links

2 11/22/2024
 Cont.
 Forward kinematics
 given the link lengths and joint angles compute the
position and orientation of the end
effector(gripper or tool) relative to the base
frame
 for a serial manipulator there is only one solution
 Inverse kinematics
 given the position and orientation of the end
effector determine the links geometry and joint
variables
 for a serial manipulator there is often more than one
mathematical solution
 Transform Equations

T 12 {2}
{1}

T 10
2
T 4

{0}

T 30
T 34
{4}

{3}

4
 Links and Joints
joint n
joint 3 joint 4 joint n-1

link 3 .................
joint 1

link 2
link n-1

link 1 link n

joint 2
link 0
 i revolute joint
qi 
 n joints, n + 1 links d i prismatic joint
 link 0 is fixed (the base)
 joint i connects link i – 1 to link i
 link i moves when joint i is actuated

5
 Forward Kinematics
 Given the joint variables and dimensions of
the links what is the position and orientation
of the end effector
 The hand frame of the robot relativep0 ? to the
base reference frame
 If all robot joint variables are known,a2
one can calculate where the robot handq
2
y0 instant
is at any

a1

q1  i revolute joint
qi 
x0
d i prismatic joint

6
 Cont.
 Because the base frame and frame 1 have the
same orientation, we can sum the coordinates
to find the position of the end effector
(a1 cos q1 in
+ a2the
cos (qbase
1 + q2),

frame a1 sin q1 + a2 sin (q1 + q2) )

y1
a2
( a2 cos (q1 + q2),
q2 a2 sin (q1 + q2) )
y0
q1
a1 x1

q1
( a1 cos q1 , a1 sin q1 )
x0

7
 Cont.
 Using transformation matrices

0
T Rz ,1 Dx , a1
1

1
T  R z , 2 D x , a 2
2

0 0 1
T T2 1 T 2

8
 Frames
 Joint frames
y2 x2

y1
a2

q2
y0 x1

a1

q1
x0

9
 Forward Kinematics
 Attach a frame {i} to link i
 if joint i is actuated then frame {i} moves relative to
frame {i - 1}
 motion is described by the rigid
i  1 transformation
T i

 the state of joint i is a ifunction

1 of
i  1its joint variable qi (i.e., is a
function of qi) T i T i (q ) i

 This makes it easy 0to find

0 the
1 last
2 frame
n  1 with
respect to the basen frame T T T T  T
1 2 3 n

10
 Cont.
 More generally

i 1 j 1
T i
i 1 T j 2 T j if i  j
i 
T j  I if i  j

 T  i 1
j if i  j

 The forward kinematics problem has been

reduced to matrix multiplication

11
 Inverse Kinematics
 Given the position and orientation of the end effector
determine the dimensions of the links and joint
variables y2 x2

(x, y)

a2

q2 ?
y0

a1

q1 ?
x0
 Cont.
 Harder than forward kinematics because
there is often more than one possible
solution
(x, y)
a2

y0
a1 There are three
approaches for the
solution
 Analytical Approach
x0  Geometric Approach
 Hybrid Approach
 Velocity Analysis
• Needed to relate the joint velocities to the tool(end
effector)velocities
 1  X=FK(θ) x
   y
 2  
  z
  3  X  
 4   
5  θ  
   
  6  =IK(X)   

Joint Task
Space Space

Location of the tool can be specified using a joint

space or a Cartesian space description
 Velocity relations
• Relation between joint velocity and Cartesian
velocity/end effector velocity
• Jacobian matrix J(θ)

 1    J ( )
X x  
   y  
 2   
 3  z  
    
 4   x 
    y 
 5    J  1 ( ) X
  
 6    z 
Joint Task
Space Space
 Jacobian
• Suppose a position and orientation vector of a
manipulator is a function of 6 joint
variables: (from forward kinematics)
X = h(q)
x  q1   h1 ( q1 , q2 ,  , q6 ) 
 y q   h (q , q ,, q )
    2
 2 1 2 6 
z  q3   h3 ( q1 , q2 ,  , q6 ) 
X   h ( )
  61 
q
   4  h4 ( q1 , q2 ,  , q6 ) 
   q5   h5 ( q1 , q2 ,  , q6 ) 
     
    q
 6   h6 ( q1 , q2 ,  , q6 )  61
 Jacobean Matrix
Forward
kinematics
X 61 h(qn1 )
d dh( q ) dq dh( q )
X 61  h( qn1 )   q
dt dq dt dq
 x 
 q 1 
 y 
  1
X 1  J 6n q n
   q 
 z   dh( q )   2 6
   
  x   dq  6n   
 y    dh(q )
   q n  n1 J
  z  dq
 Cont.
 x   q 1 
 y   
   dh(q )  q
 z    2
Jacobian is a function

   dq  6n    of q, it is not a
 x    constant!
 y   q n  n1
 
  z   h1 h1 h1 
 q 
q2 qn 
 1 
 dh( q )   h2 h2

h2 
J    q1 q2 qn 
 dq  6n      
 h h6 h6 
 6  
 q1 q2 qn  6n
 Cont.
 x 
 y  Linear
  velocity Angular  q 1 
velocity
 z   V    x    q 

X      x 
   q n1  2 
 x   
y 
V  y     y    
  z    
 
  z 
 z     q n  n1

The Jacobian
Equation
X J q
6n n1
 Example
• 2-DOF planar robot arm (x , y)

– Given l1 , l2 , Find: Jacobian


2

 x   l1 cos1  l2 cos(1   2 )  h1 (1 , 2 )  l2

 y   l sin   l sin(   )   h ( , )
   1 1 2 1 2   2 1 2 
 x    
Y    J  1   l1
 y  
 2  1

 h1 h1 
   2    l1 sin 1  l2 sin(1   2 )  l2 sin(1   2 )
J  1 
 h2 h2   l1 cos 1  l2 cos(1   2 ) l2 cos(1   2 ) 
 1  2 
 Singularities
• The inverse of the Jacobian matrix cannot be
calculated when
det [J(θ)] = 0

• Singular points are such values of θ that

cause the determinant of the Jacobian
to be zero
 • Find the singularity configuration of
the 2-DOF planar robot arm
determinant(J)=0 Not
full rank
  x   1 
X    J  
 y  
 2  V (x , y)

  l sin 1  l2 sin(1   2 )  l2 sin(1   2 )

J  1
 l1 cos 1  l2 cos(1   2 ) l2 cos(1   2 )  l2
Y
 2 =0
Det(J)=0 Loss of 1 or more DOF
 l1
 2 0 1

x
 Singularity
at Singularities
 Singularities represent configurations from which
certain directions of motion may be unattainable
 The manipulator end effector cannot move in
certain directions
 Singularities usually (but not always) correspond
to points on the boundary of the manipulator
workspace(that is, to points of maximum reach of
the manipulator)
 Bounded End-Effector velocities may correspond to
unbounded joint velocities
 Bounded joint torques may correspond to
unbounded End-Effector forces and torques
 Inverse Velocity
– The relation between the joint and end-

X  J (q )q
effector velocities:

q J (q) X
where j (m×n). If J is a square
1 matrix (m=n), the joint
velocities:

q 
– If m<n, let (q ) X 
J Pseudoinverse J
T
J J [ JJ ]
+ T 1
where
 Acceleration
The relation between the joint and end-effector
velocities:  X  J (q )q

d
Differentiating this equation yields an expression for the

acceleration X  J (q )q [ J (q)]q
dt
X 
q
 d
Given
J (q )q X  [ J (q )]q
of the end-effector acceleration, the joint
acceleration
dt
1  d
q J (q )[ X  J (q )]q ]
dt
 Modeling and Control of Manipulators

• Forward Kinematics
Problem
Given: Joint angles and links geometry
Compute: Position and orientation of the
end effector relative to the base frame
Solution
Kinematic Equations - Linear Transformation
(4x4 matrix) which is a function of the joint
positions (angles & displacements) and
specifies the end effector configuration
in the base frame
 Cont.

• Inverse Kinematics
Problem
Given: Position and orientation of the end
effector relative to the base frame
Compute: All possible sets of joint angles and
links geometry which could be
used to attain the given position and
orientation of the end effector
Solution
There are three approaches for the solution
• Analytical Approach
• Geometric Approach
• Hybrid Approach
 Cont.
• Velocity Transformation
Problem
Given: Joint angles and velocities and links geometry along
with the transformation matrixes between the joints
Compute: The Jacobian matrix that maps between the joint
velocities in the joint space to the end effector
velocities in the Cartesian space or the end effector
space  
 J ()  J  1 ()
Solution – There are two approaches to the solution:
• Time derivative of the end effector position and ordinations
• Velocity Propagation - A velocity propagation approach is taken in which velocities
are propagated stating form the stationary base all the way to the end effector. The
Jacobian is then extracted from the velocities of the end effector as a function of the
joint velocities.
• Singularities
 Cont.
• Force Transformation
Given: Joint angles, links geometry, transformation matrixes between the
joints, along with the external loads (forces and moments) typically
applied on the end effector
Compute: The transpose Jacobian matrix that maps between the external loads
(forces and moments) typically applied at the end effector space joint
torques at the joint space
τ
Solution τ J T f
Force/Moment Propagation - A force/moment propagation approach is taken
in which forces and moments are propagated stating form the end effector
Where they can be measured by a F/T sensor attached between the gripper
and the arm all the way to the base of the arm. The Jacobian transposed is
then extracted from the joint torques as a function of the force/moment applied
on the end effector
 Cont.
• Forward Dynamics
Problem
Given: Joint torques and links
geometry, mass, inertia,
friction
Compute: Angular acceleration
of the links
(solve differential equations)
Solution
Dynamic Equations Newton-Euler method
τ M ()   V ( , 
 )  G ( )  F ( , 
)
or Lagrangian Dynamics
 Cont.
• Inverse Dynamics
Problem
Given: Angular acceleration, velocity and
angels of the links in addition to the
links geometry, mass, inertia, friction
Compute: Joint torques
Solution
Dynamic Equations - Newton-Euler method
or Lagrangian Dynamics
  V ( , 
τ  M ( )  )  G ( )  F ( , 
)
 Cont.
• Trajectory Generation
Problem
Given: Manipulator geometry
Compute: The trajectory of each joint such that
the end effector move in space
from point A to Point B
Solution
Third order (or higher) polynomial spline

• Polynomials of different orders

• Linear functions with parabolic blends
 Cont.
• Position Control
Problem
Given: Joint angles (sensor readings) links
geometry, mass, inertia, friction
Compute: Joint torques to achieve an end
effector trajectory
Solution
Control Algorithm (PID - Feedback loop,
Feed forward dynamic control)
 Cont.
• Force Control
Problem
Given: Joint torque or end effector
Force/torque interaction (sensor
readings) links geometry, mass,
inertia, friction
Compute: Joint torques to achieve an end
effector forces
Solution
Control Algorithm (force control)
 Approaches to Dynamic Modeling
• Provides the relation between generalized forces 𝑢(𝑡)
acting on the robot and robot motion
• Lagrange method (energy-based approach)
Dynamic equations in symbolic/closed form
Best for study of dynamic properties and analysis of control schemes
• Newton-Euler method(balance of forces/torques)
Dynamic equations in numeric/recursive form
Best for implementation of control schemes (inverse dynamics in real
time)
 Lagrange method
• Lagrangian L defined as difference between kinetic and potential energy

L K  P
• L is a scalar function of q and dq/dt
• L requires only first derivatives in time
where  
L = Lagrangian   L  L
K = Kinetic Energy of the system
Fi     
 t   x   x i
P = Potential Energy of the system  i
F = the summation of all external forces
for a linear motion
  L  L
T = the summation of all torques in a T i 
rotational motion t    

i
i
X = System variables
 Cont.
The general Dynamics

The full dynamics of a robot arm is in the form of

Where
is joint angle acceleration
is the control signal (specifying torque)
a function describing the centrifugal effects (Non-linear terms:
sin(θ), cos(θ), (dθ/dt)2, (dθ/dt)*θ)
the effect of gravity in joint space
M the mass matrix of the system in joint space
 Newton-Euler method
Newton’s Law second law of motion
F m a
d
mv  F
dt
Linear Momentum Rate of change of the linear
 mv momentum is equal to the
applied force
 Cont.
• The dynamics, related with accelerations, loads, masses and inertias
__ __ __ __

 F m a  T I 
 The actuator can be accelerate a robot’s links for exerting enough
forces and torques at a desired acceleration and velocity.
 By the dynamic relationships that govern the motions of the robot,
considering the external loads, the designer can calculate the neces-
sary forces and torques
 Example
Derive the force-acceleration relationship for the one-degree of freedom system

Free-body diagram for the spring-cart system

Schematic of a simple cart-spring
system
1 1 2
1 1  2 1
K  mv 2  m x , P  kx 2 L K  P  m x  kx 2
2 2 2 2 2
Lagrangian mechanics Newtonian mechanics
__ __
L
.
d . . .. L
m x, (m x) m x,  kx  F m a
 xi dt x
F  kx ma  F ma  kx
..
F m x  kx
END