Wallaga University

Ground Surveying(GISc 2030)

By: Bira-anu T.
 Unit 5: Electromagnetic
Distance Measurements(EDM)
 Basic concept of EDM
 Classification of electromagnetic radiation
 Principles of EDM
 Brief description of different types of EDM
instruments
 Total station
 Theodolite
 GNSS

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By: Bira-anu Tadesa @WU! 11/22/2024
 Basic concept of EDM
 EDM was first introduced in the 1950s for distance
measurements only and has undergone several
modifications.
 Electronic/optic theodolite mountable EDM was
introduced first, and these are in use even today.

 Rapid advances in related technologies have

provided lighter, simpler and less expensive
instruments.

 Latest versions of EDM instruments are used as a

modular component of total stations.

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 Cont’d

 EDM is a method of determining the length b/n two

points, using phase changes, that occur as
electromagnetic energy waves travels from one end
to other end.
 In this method instruments are used to measure
distance that rely on electromagnetic waves like
radio, visible light or infrared waves
 EDM Require clear line of
sight;
 Energy transmitted from one end of the line to the
other & returned back to the starting point; thus it
travels the measurement distance twice.

By: Bira-anu Tadesa @WU!

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 Cont’d

 Some earlier versions of EDM instruments used

natural light for the calculation of distances

 Currently, EDM instruments are classified based on

the type of carrier wave as:
 Microwave instruments
 Infrared wave Instruments
 Light Wave Instruments

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 Cont’d

 Total Station(TS) measures the slope distance

between the instrument and the target.
 Slope distance gets converted to horizontal and
vertical distance.
 Total Station(TS) makes use of an Electronic
Distance Measurement Instrument (EDMI) for
measurement of distance.

 Thus, TS makes use of principle of EDMI for

measurement of its slope distance.

By: Bira-anu Tadesa @WU!

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 Light propagation of EDM
V

V and c in a vacuum = 299,792,458m/sec

 = wavelength(meters)
f= modulated frequency of energy(Hz, 1cycle/sec

c = speed of light in vacuum(m/sec)
n = atmospheric index of refraction
n  1.0003, function of pressure & temperature

 Measure time for pulse to return,

By: Bira-anu Tadesa @WU!

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 Classification of EDM

 EDM can be classified on the basis of three

parameters:
 wavelengths used
 working range and
 achievable accuracy

By: Bira-anu Tadesa @WU!

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 Cont’d

1. Classification on the Basis of

Wavelength
Present generation EDM instruments use the
following types of wavelengths:
 infrared,
 laser and
 microwaves.

The infrared and laser systems are known as

electro-optical whereas microwave is called as the
electronic system.

By: Bira-anu Tadesa @WU!

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 Cont’d
Infrared:
 Systems employing these frequencies of EM spectrum
allow use of optical corner reflectors (special type of
reflectors to return the infrared signal) but need
optically clear path between two stations.
 Use transmitter at one end of line and a reflecting
prism or target at the other end.
Laser:
 Use transmitter at one end of line and may or
may not use a reflecting prism or target at the
other end.
 However, the reflector-less laser instruments are used
for short distances (100–350 m).
 Use light reflected off the feature to be measured (say
a wall).
By: Bira-anu Tadesa @WU!
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 Cont’d

Electronic System (Microwave):

o Have receiver/transmitter at both ends of measured line.
o Are often used for hydrographic surveys normally up to
100 km.
o At present, it has generally been replaced by GNSS.
• used in adverse weather conditions such as fog and rain,
unlike infrared and laser systems.
• However, uncertainties caused by varying humidity over
measurement length may result in lower accuracy and
prevent a more reliable estimate of probable accuracy.

o Multipath effects at microwave frequency also add to

slight distance error, which can be reduced by taking
series of measurements using different frequencies.

By: Bira-anu Tadesa @WU!

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 Cont’d

2. Classification on the Basis of Range

 EDMs are also available as:
 Long-range radio wave equipment for ranges up
to 100 km

 Medium-range microwave equipment with

frequency modulation for ranges up to 25 km

 Short-range electro-optical equipment using

amplitude modulated infrared or visible light for
ranges up to 5 km

By: Bira-anu Tadesa @WU!

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 Cont’d

3. Classification on the Basis of Accuracy

 Accuracy of EDM is generally stated in terms of
constant instruments error and measuring error
proportional to the distance being measured: ± (a
mm + b ppm).

 The first part in this expression indicates a

constant instrument error that is independent of
the length of the line measured.

 The second component is the distance-related

error.

By: Bira-anu Tadesa @WU!

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 Cont’d
 Here, a is a result of errors in phase measurements
(u) and zero error (z), whereas b results from error in
modulation frequency ( f ) and the group refractive
index (ng).

 The term group index pertains to the refractive

index for a combination of waves carrier wave and
multiple modulated waves in EDM.

 u and z are independent of distance, but f and ng

are functions of distance and are expressed as

√( ) ( )
2
𝜎𝑓
2
𝜎 𝑛𝑔
𝑎= √ 𝜎 𝜃2 +𝜎 𝑧 2 𝑏= +
𝑓 𝑛𝑔
By: Bira-anu Tadesa @WU!
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 Cont’d
 Most of the EDMs have accuracy levels from ±(3
mm + 1 ppm) to ±(10 mm + 10 ppm).
 For short distances, part a is more significant; for
long distances, part b will have large contribution.

By: Bira-anu Tadesa @WU!

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 Principles of EDM

 The basic principle of EDM instrument is the

determination of time required for EMW to travel b/n
two stations
 The velocity of EMW is the basis for computations of
the distance
 Two EDM Measurement
 techniques
Pulsed Laser System
 Phase Shift

16 By: Bira-anu Tadesa @WU!

11/22/2024
 Phase Shift Method
 Uses continuous Electro Magnetic waves(EMW);
 Measures lengths by indirectly determining the number of full and
partial cycles of transmitted electromagnetic emission b/n the 2
ends of a line
 EDMI consisting of an electro-wave generator,
an oscillator, a modulator, a transmitter, a
receiver and etc.
 Modulated EMW is transmitted to the target, placed at the other
end of the line.
 The target, acting as a reflector, reflects the light beam back to the
receiver, where the incoming light is converted to an electrical
signal.
 A phase comparison is made b/n the projected & reflected signals.
 Then the amount by w/c the transmitted & received signals are out
of phase get measured electronically & registered in a meter by
getting converted to an equivalent distance.
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 Cont’d

By: Bira-anu Tadesa @WU!

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 Cont’d

 In order to measure the distance b/n stations A and B,

let an EDM be placed at A and a reflector be at B. The
modulated beam transmitted from A travels to B and
returns back.
 Let the received signal is out of phase( i.e., phase
shift) from the transmitted signal by  as measured
by a phase meter. The equivalent linear distance, d is
*.

 Thus, the distance(D) between the stations is *,

where n is the integral number of wavelength,  in
the double path.

19 By: Bira-anu Tadesa @WU! 11/22/2024

 Cont’d

 Ambiguity n is resolved commonly in EDM instruments

by employing multiple-frequency technique based on
decade modulation.
 Decade modulator is usually built into the EDM device,
permitting automatic determination of n and thus a
direct readout of the distance.
L= length(m)
 = wavelength(m) 𝜽
𝑷= 
 = effective wavelength(m)
n= number full wavelengths
𝟑𝟔𝟎′
p= length of fractional part

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 Pulsed Laser System
 Makes use of pulses derived from an infrared or
visible laser diode.
 Distance is obtained by measuring transit time and
velocity of pulsed electro-magnetic signal in travelling
b/n TS and target & back.
 Velocity(v) of pulses gets determined.
 Transit time(t) is measured using electronic signal
processing technique.
 Distance, D=0.5*V*t.

 Large number of pulses(20,000/sec) get analysed

during measurements.

21 By: Bira-anu Tadesa @WU! 11/22/2024

 Cont’d

 Pulse methods have advantages over the phase

difference methods but their weight and power
requirement are such that they cannot be classed
lightweight portable instruments.

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 Summary

 Phase shift method makes use of continuous

electromagnetic waves(EMW).
 In Phase shift method, lengths get measured
indirectly by multiplying wavelength to number of
cycles of transmitted EMW between the instrument
and the target.
 Phase shift method is most widely used technique
for measurement of distance using EDMI.
 Pulse Laser System makes use of pulses signal.
 In pulsed Laser system, distance is obtained by
multiplying transit time and velocity of propagation
of pulsed signal.
23 By: Bira-anu Tadesa @WU! 11/22/2024
 Total Station(TS)

 TS is a surveying equipment combination of EDM

instrument (Microwave, Infrared wave & light
wave instrument) and electronic theodolite.

 The instrument can

be used to measure
horizontal & vertical
angles as well as
sloping distance of
object to the
instrument

24 By: Bira-anu Tadesa @WU! 11/22/2024

 Fundamental measurements
done by total station
 when aimed at appropriate target, a total station
measures three parameters:
 Horizontal angle: the rotation of instrument’s
optical axis from the instrument north in a horizontal
plane.
 Vertical angle: the inclination of the optical axis
from the local vertical meridian.
 Slope distance: the distance between the
instrument and the target.

By: Bira-anu Tadesa @WU!

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 Cont’d
 The primary functions we use the total station is
for:
• Angle measurement

• Co-ordinate measurement

• Distance measurement

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 Advantages of Using Total Stations:

• Field work is carried out very fast.

• Accuracy of measurement is high.
• Manual errors involved in reading and recording
are eliminated.
• Calculation of coordinates is very fast and accurate.
Even corrections for temperature and pressure are
automatically made.
• Computers can be employed for map making and
plotting contour and cross-sections. Contour
intervals and scales can be changed in no time.

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By: Bira-anu Tadesa @WU!
 Computing Horizontal Lengths
from slope distance
 When talk about slope we thought synonym word
like: slant, incline, decline, tilt, dip, rise, ascend,
climb, gradient, pitch….

 Slope communicates both

steepness and direction
Slope = =

 Positive Slope: ascending,

moves up & to the right.
 Negative Slope: descending,
moves down & to the right.
28 By: Bira-anu Tadesa @WU! 11/22/2024
 Cont’d

 Difference in
Elevation

Example1:Suppose you measure a slope distance

of 165.360m from A to B. Elevation of A=447.401m
& elevation of B= 445.389m. The height of the
instrument at A= 1.417m & the height of the rod at
B= 1.615. what is the horizontal distance from A to
B? Answer: 165.350m
29 By: Bira-anu Tadesa @WU! 11/22/2024
 Cont’d

Example 2: Suppose you measure a slope distance

of 201.324m from A to B. you also measure the
zenith angle at A of 1221521.compute vertical
distance
Hint: V=LsinZ and
H=LcosZ
Answer: 170.254m

30 By: Bira-anu Tadesa @WU! 11/22/2024

 Slope correction()

 For gentle slopes(20%) it is safe to assume that

the slope distance(s) is approximately equal to
the horizontal distance(d) or
𝟐
𝒉
𝑪𝒉 =
𝟐𝒔
 For steep slopes(20%-30%)

 For very steep slopes(>30%)

=s(1-cos) d=s-

31 By: Bira-anu Tadesa @WU! 11/22/2024

 Slope correction problem

 A slope distance AB and BC measured 330.49m

and 660.97m, respectively. The differences in
elevation are 12.22m for points A and B, and
10.85m for points B and C. using the approximate
slope correction formula for gentle slopes,
determine the Horizontal length of line ABC.
Assume that line AB has a rising slope and BC a
falling slope.

Answer:991.1450275m

32 By: Bira-anu Tadesa @WU! 11/22/2024

 Errors in EDM

 Constant Errors
 Miscentering error in instrument
 Miscentering error of the rod
 EDM error

 Scalar Errors
 Parts per million(PPM) for EDM

 Precision =

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 Cont’d

 Sources of error in EDM work may be:

 Personal
 Instrumental
 Natural

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 Error Correction in EDMs

 The device for measuring distance by light waves

should always have the correction for the measured
value.
 Distance measurement devices are generally
influenced by the following factors:
 Observation variable that we can directly observe.
 The non-observation variable that we cannot
directly observe.
 The variables that are possible to observe and
determine a specific condition are temperature,
atmospheric pressure and steam pressure, and their
effects are different.
By: Bira-anu Tadesa @WU!
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 Cont’d

 The refraction index is calculated by the variables of

temperature, atmospheric pressure and steam
pressure, and it determines the ratio between the
velocities of EM waves under vacuum (CV) and EM
waves under the regular atmospheric condition (CA).
 Therefore, it is expressed as n= CV/CA, and if we
know the refraction index (which is always <1), we
can compute the temporary spread velocity of the EM
wave, and this equals to the spread velocity of the
measurement signal.

 Although the measurement signal travels the same

distance with various velocities according to the
weather conditions.
By: Bira-anu Tadesa @WU!
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 Thank you!!

37 By: Bira-anu Tadesa @WU! 11/22/2024