OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE

Aircraft
Stability
• Tendency of airplane to return to its
equilibrium position after it has been
disturbed (unaided).

• Disturbance may be pilot’s actions or

atmospheric in
nature (i.e. wind gusts or turbulent air).

• Sufficient stability is required for:

• flight safety
• pilots do not have to constantly adjust the
controls to counter the disturbances
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Aircraft
Stability
An aircraft's stability is expressed in relation to each axis:
- Longitudinal stability (stability in pitch)
- Lateral stability (stability in roll),
- Directional stability (stability in yaw)
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Static vs Dynamic
Stability
• Static Stability
• After a disturbance, the forces and
moments of a body tend initially to return
the body to its equilibrium position
• 3 types of static stability: positive, neutral
and
negative
• Dynamic stability
• Deals with the time history of the vehicle’s
motion
after the initial response to its static
stability
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Static vs Dynamic
Stability
Statically Statically Statically
positive neutral negative

Dynamically Dynamically Dynamically

positive neutral negative

An aircraft is said to be in stable flight, only if

it is stable both statically and dynamically.
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Aircraft
Equilibrium
• Total resultant force acting on an aircraft
equals zero

• Total resultant moment acting on an aircraft

equals zero

• Also known as trimmed flight condition

Equilibrium = Stability ?
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Aircraft
Controllability
• Controllability is the quality of the response of an
aircraft to the pilot’s commands while
maneuvering the aircraft about the 3 axes so
that the desired flying attitudes can be
achieved.

• Requires aerodynamic forces to overcome the

natural stability restoring moments and cause
aircraft to deviate from the equilibrium.
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Static Stability
factors
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Aircraft Controllability
factors
• Size and location of the flight control surfaces : elevators, ailer
rudders

• Use of trim devices

• Use of powered flight controls

• Improve inherent stability of aircraft by implementing stability

augmentation devices.
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Conditions for Longitudinal Static

Stability

• Coefficient of moment at zero absolute AOA

(Cm,o) must be positive
• Moment coefficient curve with a negative slope
Cm,o= is the coefficient of moment at AOA is at 0

α
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Effect of Tail on
Stability

• Tail inclined downwards to produce negative

tail lift
•Positive moment contribution from the tail will
overcome the negative moment due to the
main wings
•Achieves positive Cm,o for static stability
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Effect of Canards on
Stability

• Canards inclined upwards to produce

positive lift
•Positive moment contribution
overcomes the negative moment due to
the main wings
•However, canards cause interference on
the main wing
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Achieving Longitudinal Stability in Tail-less

Aircraft

•Front wing portion with positive camber with

small aft portion with negative camber
•Moving from wing root to the wing tip, the sections
of the airfoil is progressively more and more nose
down (known as wing twist or washout).
•This provides the necessary down-force close to the
rear of the aircraft.
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Factors Affecting Location of Neutral

point(1)
Position of Neutral point, hn = hacw +
VH.aw / at
• Location
VH = lt.Sof
t / neutral
(c.Sw) point is fixed on an aircraft
depending on aircraft design.

• Influenced strongly by the tail (i.e. VH)

• Aircraft designers will manipulate the tail

parameters to locate the neutral point at the
most optimal location.
Hacw= wing aerodynamic center location
aW= wing lift slope
at=tail lift slope
it=tail setting angle C=wing chord
St=tail area Sw=wing area
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Natural frequency and Damping

Ratio
• Used to study the dynamic or oscillatory
motion of an object.
• Damping ratio (ζ)
– Measures the level of damping or
resistance to motion.
– High damping ratio effective in reducing the
amplitude of oscillations over time.
– Describes how oscillations decay after a
disturbance
• Natural angular frequency (ωn)
– Frequency of the oscillation when the system is
under free vibration and is under-damped.
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Typical Motions of a Dynamic

System

*Type of motion
depends on
the damping
ratio (ζ)
Damping ratio = C /
Ccritical
C = Damping Coefficient
Ccritical = Critical Damping
coefficient

Critical damping, ζ = 1
Under-damped, 0 < ζ <
1 Over-damped, ζ > 1
Dynamically unstable, ζ
<0
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Damping Ratio and Natural

•Frequency
Aircraft are designed with such
that the dynamic responses have
optimal natural frequency with
good damping
• Problems
Natural with
Frequency Too high too high
Aircraft or too
response lowMay
too rapid.
values: lead to pilot induced oscillations
(PIO)
Too low Aircraft response is
sluggish. Difficult to trim
aircraft
Damping Ratio Too high Compromised controllability
and manoeuvrability

Too low Dynamically unstable. Aircraft

oscillates with many overshoots
Longitudinal Motion : S h o r t P e r i o d
OFF ICIA L (C LOS ED )\N ON- SEN SIT I VE

Pitching Oscillation (SPPO)

• Usually well-damped oscillation caused by a disturbance in

pitch
– Aircraft pitches => restoring moment pitches back to original
position => aircraft overshoots due to momentum =>
oscillations
• Oscillation is purely about the aircraft’s c.g. (no change in
altitude)
and short period of a few seconds.
• Pitch angle and AOA vary but at nearly constant speed
• Affects mainly smaller aircraft, e.g. fighters.
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Factors Affecting
SPPO
Natural Frequency Damping Ratio
o Aircraft Static Margin o Size and distance of
o More stable aircraft horizontal stabiliser
results in faster o Large horizontal
oscillations stabiliser provides
o Large horizontal stab. better damping
increases SPPO o “Paddle” effect
frequency
o Size and Length of
o Length and weight of Fuselage
Fuselage o Big aircraft with long
o Aircraft with short and fuselage provides better
light fuselage has damping during
faster SPPO oscillations

o Aspect ratio o Aspect ratio

o Aircraft with long, o High aspect ratio wings
slender wings (higher result
AR) has faster SPPO in better damping
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Longitudinal Motion :
Phugoid

• Lightly damped oscillation (many overshoots) with a longer

period 40 to 60 secs) caused by an initial change in aircraft
altitude
• Changes in altitude and velocity at nearly constant angle
of attack. Trade between altitude and airspeed (potential
and kinetic energy)
• Aircraft climbs and descends, like a roller-coaster in the
air.
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Lateral Motion : Directional

Divergence

• Occurs when aircraft

lacks directional
stability
• When disturbed,
aircraft tends to rotate
to ever-increasing
angles of side-slip
• Can be avoided by
proper design of the
vertical tail
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Lateral Motion : Spiral

• Predominantly rolling motion
with side-slip. Bank angle
and side-slip increases over
time.
• Spiraling motion which
becomes tighter and steeper
over time – can result in high
speed spiral dive if not
corrected
• Occurs when directional
stability is large and lateral
stability is small
• Can make spiral mode more
stable by increasing the
dihedral effect or reducing size
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Lateral Motion : Dutch Roll

• Yawing oscillations with a superimposed rolling oscillations

(same frequency but with a phase lag). Oscillations occur from
side to side.
• Caused by disturbance in yaw
• Period in order of 3 to 15 seconds and lightly damped.
• Vertical fin has a stabilizing effect but dihedral / swept-back
wing is de-stabilizing
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What is a Flying
Wing?
• Aircraft shaped like a wing without any obvious
fuselage or other protruding surfaces
Advantages Disadvantages

•Most efficient aerodynamic shape •Pitch and yaw stability

•Structural weight savings •SPPO problems
•Stealthy design •Control problems
•Wing thickness a compromise between
payload and aerodynamic efficiency
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Mechanical Flight Control

System

• Pilot demands mechanically relayed to actuators

• Uses a collection of mechanical parts such as rods,
cables, pulleys and sometimes chains to transmit
the forces applied to the cockpit controls directly to
the control surfaces.
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Fly-by-Wire (FBW)
System

• Signaled by electrical commands from the pilot

inputs
• Computer in-between yoke input and control
surfaces
• Advantages
– Weight savings: elimination of rods, cables and pulleys
– Reduced maintenance : mechanical systems needs
regular maintenance (e.g. lubrication) and
adjustments
–
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Features of Fly-By-
Wire
• Control surface actuators are controlled
electrically.
• Computers convert pilot controls into
electronic
commands transmitted to the actuators
• Real-time surface control based on advanced
control laws
• Control laws to remove or minimise
undesirable flight
characteristics
• Integration of additional functions into the
system
– Stability augmentation
– Yaw damper
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Conventional Powered Flight

Controls
• Power assisted
– Control column
connected to surface via
control lever
– Input from pilot deflects
the control surface and
activates the
pressurised fluid

• Power operated
– No linkage with the
control surface
– Pilot input only moves
the
control lever of the
servo unit
– No ‘feel’ of
aerodynamic loads
 OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE

Series vs Parallel
Actuators
• Series Actuators • Parallel
• Movement of the actuator does Actuators
not
produce movement at the cockpit
• Cockpit control will move
controls
when the parallel actuator
moves
• Cockpit control is prevented from
moving by the artificial feel
• Pilot is aware of the
system.
actuator operation

• Suitable for control of unwanted

• Suitable for control of
disturbances or deflection of
primary flight surfaces
secondary surfaces, e.g. flaps,
(elevators, ailerons,
spoilers
rudders) for better
situational awareness.
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Powered Flight
Controls
• Pneumatic
– Powered by engine
driven pump or bleed
air
– Electrical signals from
the FBW controls an
electromagnetic dual-
valve assembly
– When there is a
command signal, the
open time period of
one valve is increased
while the open time
period of other valve is
Pneumatic servo-
decreased.
actuator
– Differential pressure in
the valves cause one
 OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE

Powered Flight Controls

• Electrical
– Either DC motor or
2- phase induction
motor
– Powered by
DC actuated servo-
aircraft power actuator
supply
– Command signal is
amplified and
used to control
the motors
– Motor is coupled to 2 phase induction type servo-
the flight control actuator

system via electro-

 OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE

Powered Flight Controls

• Hydraulic
– Powered by aircraft hydraulics system
– Command signals sent to the hydraulic
transfer valves to direct the hydraulic
fluid to one side or the other.
– Build-up of hydraulic pressure differential
results in the actuation of the control
surface
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Functions of Flight Control

Computers
• Implement the flight control laws to
improve the aircraft natural flying
qualities
– Stability augmentation
– Better control to reduce pilot workload
– Flight domain protection
• Fault detection and failure
mode management
 OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE

How FBW Made the B2 Bomber

Possible(2)
• Unstable aircraft becomes flyable
– Implement advanced control laws to counter
inherent
instability
• Automatic manoeuvre envelope protection
– Ensures that B2 flies within the safe flight
envelope
• Weight savings
– Use of electrical wirings as opposed to
mechanical rods, pulleys, cables, etc.
– Better able to meet mission payload and
performance
• Fuel savings
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Hierarchy of
AFCS
• Internal Conditions
– Derived from
ATTITUDE HOLD inertial sensors
CONTROL such as gyros
INTERNAL
AUGMENNTATIO
N CONDITION and
RATE
S accelerometers
DAMPERS
– E.g. Pitch and
AFCS

(SAS)
roll attitude
• External
(SCAS)
Conditions
(ASE)
– Derived from
AUTOPILOT
EXTERNAL
sensors based
CONDITION on external
OPERATIONAL AUTOPILOT S
factors
– E.g. Airspeed
and altitude
 OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE

Hierarchy of AFCS

• Rate dampers (or

stability augmentation
system (SAS))
– Improve stability by removing ATTITUDE

unwanted rates of motion. HOLD

CONTROL
– Core function of AFCS as control AUGMENNTATIO
N
will be RATE

• difficult control
Stability without sufficient stability DAMPERS

AFCS
(SAS)

augmentation systems
(SCAS)
– Facilitates control in a
stability augmentation
system
– Prevents pilot control from
• being damped
Attitude hold (or
out by the rate dampers
Attitude stabilisation
system (ASE))
– Holds to aircraft to fixed
attitude
– E.g. Pitch attitude hold or
wing-leveller
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Hierarchy of AFCS

• Autopilots (A/P)
– Hold the aircraft to an external
condition like airspeed, altitude ATTITUDE
and track HOLD
CONTROL

• Operational Autopilot
AUGMENNTATIO
N

– Perform specific manoeurves such RATE

DAMPERS

AFCS
as ILS approach, landing in low (SAS)

visibility conditions, automatic

transition to hover (for
helicopters)
 OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE

AFCS as a Closed Loop

System
MAN-MACHINE LOOP

Information
Transfer

Cockpi Control Stability & Aircraft

t Control
Pilo
Control Surface Characteristics Reactio
t
s s n

Inner

Outer

AFCS LOOP

• Inner loop control – handles the internal

conditions
– Examples are rate dampers and attitude
hold
• Outer loop control – handles the external
 OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE

AFCS
Sensors
Parameter Sensor Alternate sensor

Pitch/Roll/Yaw Rate gyros Attitude gyros

Pitch/Roll Vertical gyro Rate gyros (integrated)

Heading Compass, flux Attitude & heading

valve, INS reference
system
Vertical/ Accelerometer Differentiated rate
lateral/ Yaw
(acceleration)
Airspeed ASI/Mach Air data system

Altitude Barometric altitude Inertial platform

Height (above ground) Radar altimeter Doppler

AOA Vane Differential pressure

system
Flight paths/Nav.data ILS,MLS,INS GPS
 OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE

Flight Management System

(FMS)
• Enables optimal flight along
a
pre-planned flight path
• 4 main functions:
– Navigational guidance
according to flight plan
– Performance Management
by selecting the best
flight profile and engine
settings for fuel economy
– Operation of status and
warning
displays
– Automatic flight control
• Sends aircraft flight profile
to the AFCS when LNAV and
VNAV modes are engaged.
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Flight Director
(FD)

• Aircraft control command signals are computed

and only
displayed to the pilots using the PFD and ND.
• Pilots will manually fly the aircraft according to
the
 OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE

Different AFCS
Architecture
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Operation of Multiple Redundant

AFCS
• Each lane is compared against one
another.
• The failed lane will trigger a failed
comparison in 2 of the comparators
• Using a voter, the failed lane can b
detected and shut down.
• Able to survive single lane failure a
continue normal operations.
 OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE

Types of System Failure

•
Behaviour
Fail-soft AFCS
– In event of failure, there is some deviation of trim, flight path or
attitude but without endangering passenger safety.
– The failure is not automatically detected.
– E.g. Duplex

• Fail-passive AFCS
– In event of failure, there is no significant deviation of trim,
flight path or attitude
– Failure is automatically detected and the remaining flight will
via manual pilot.
– E.g. Duplex with cross-coupled feedback

• Fail operational AFCS

– In the event of failure, a secondary or back-up system either
ensures automatic control of aircraft or provides guidance to the
pilot to complete the flight.
– Eg. Triplex or Quadruplex
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Controls in the Helicopter

Cockpit
• Collective control
– changes the angle of attack of ALL the main
rotor
blades
– used to increase and decrease the altitude
of the helicopter
• Cyclic control
– changes the angle of attack of the main rotor
blades at certain parts of the revolution
– used to change direction of helicopter
• Anti-torque pedals
– changes the thrust generated by the anti-
torque rotor
– used to yaw the helicopter
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Trimming
Control
• (1) 4-way trim
switch or beeper
switch
– Drives the trim
motor
– Allows small changes in
attitude to be made
during the ATT mode of
autopilot operations
• (2) Force trim switch
– Disengages the clutch in
the force trim
mechanism
– Re-centers force trim
mechanism
– Removes the forces in in
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Auto-Stabilisation
Modes
• SAS Mode
– Pilot flies the aircraft hands-on
– Main input is attitude data from AHRS
– Calculates and damps out aircraft oscillations
– After SAS corrections, controls return to original datum
position
• ATT Mode
– Retains the last attitude selected by the pilot
– Main input is also attitude data
– Selected attitude may be changed by (1) force trim switch or
(2) 4-way attitude switch.
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Types of
Autopilot
Types of AP Axis of Motion Controls

2- axis Pitch Fore-aft cyclic

Roll Left-right cyclic

3-axis Pitch Fore-aft cyclic

Roll Left-right cyclic
Yaw Anti-torque
pedals

4-axis Pitch Fore-aft cyclic

Roll Left-right cyclic
Yaw Anti-torque
Verti pedals
cal Collective
(up
dow
n)
 OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE

Auto-hover Autopilot(3)

• Typical sensors used

– Flux detector for heading
– Rate gyros / attitude gyros
– Doppler radar for ground speed
– Altimeter (barometric or radar)
• Collective channel maintains height
above ground / water level
• Cyclic channel maintains zero
ground speed
• Yaw channel maintains steady
helicopter heading (includes auto-
stabilisation).
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Closed loop Vs. Open loop

System

Closed Loop System Open Loop System

• The main difference between the closed loop and

open loop control system is the lack of feedback signal
for the latter.
• Through this feedback the output signal (i.e.
measured value)
is compared with the input.(reference or desired
value)
• The difference between the input signal and the output
 OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE

Control System
Objective
• Regardless of load changes or disturbance to the systems. A con
system is to maintain the controlled variable (e.g. pitch angle) exactly
to the desired value

• To do this, the control system must respond to a change before th

error occurs; however feedback is never perfect because it does n
act until an error occurs.

• Desirable characteristics of the control system:

To minimize the error value, quick settling time
and the
reduce residual error.
 OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE

Advantages vs
Disadvantages
Advantages Disadvantages
Less expensive (minimum No error correction for
components) external disturbances

Open Loop System

No stability problem Need constant re-calibration
to maintain the desired
output.

Simple in design and easy to

implement.

Improved accuracy and High maintenance cost due to

bandwidth (frequency design complexity and
Closed Loop System response) redundancy,

Reduces sensitivity due to Stability problems – tends to

external disturbance oscillate
 OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE

Example of Closed Loop

System • Objective: Control the
speed of the rotating disk,
e.g. CD player.
• Input: Speed setting
done through a
potentiometer
connected across
battery. Provides input
or reference voltage
• Feedback: Speed of
rotation measured by
tachometer. Provides
feedback voltage
• Operation: Difference
between the input and
feedback results in error
signal, which is amplified to
drive the DC motor.
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What is a
Servomechanism?
• Device in which a small power input controls
a much larger power output in a proportional
manner.
• Closed loop control system based on error-
sensing
feedback.
– Using the feedback signal, it detects the difference
between input and output (error), and corrects for
it.
• Usually comprises sensing elements, amplifier
and
servomotor
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Position Control
Servomechanism

• Provides a required output shaft position in

response to an input signal.
• Shaft position feedback sensed by
potentiometer or LVDTs / RVDTs
• Examples: aircraft surface actuators,
environmental control systems.
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Speed Control
Servomechanism

• Produces a desired output shaft velocity in

response to a command signal
• Shaft velocity feedback sensed by tacho-
generator.
• Examples: aircraft engine control, antenna
RPM control
 OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE

Analyzing Servomechanism
Performance
• To understand the behavior and characteristics of the
system, test input signals are used to compare the
responses of the various systems to these input
signals.
• The type of the input signals to use will depend on the
system operation under normal condition.
• A step function is used as a test signal if the system is
subjected to sudden disturbances
• A ramp function is used as a test signal if the
inputs to a control system is changing with
respect to time.
• An impulse function is used as a test signal if the
system is subjected to shock inputs. (e.g. drop
test)
• The time response of a control system consists of
two parts:
the transient response and the steady-state
response.
 OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE

Step Input
Response
• A step input can be
referred to as a sudden
disturbance or change in
the input angle of a
control shaft.
• Oscillations due to time
lag in the output and the
load’s inertial.
• Transient response
refers to the oscillations
following the step input.
• Steady state response
refers to the eventual
position of the output
after the oscillations
stop.
• Examples: landing
gear switch,
navigation lights
 OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE

Ramp Input
Response
• A ramp input is an input
that is
changing at a constant
rate.
• Oscillatory portion
represent transient
• The error signal is small at
the beginning , as the
load accelerates slowly
the output lags behind
the input.
• During steady state, the
load rotates at a
constant speed and is
resisted by viscous
friction. It is a function of
speed.
 OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE

Deadband in
Servomechanism
• Also known as the neutral zone
• Refer to the area of a signal
range or band where no control
action takes place
• Unwanted deadband
– Caused by switching
action, change in direction
or wear and tear of
mechanical control
mechanism
• Pre-programmed deadband
– Can be programmed or
incorporated into a control
system to prevent
 OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE

Closed Loop Transfer

Function
• Defined as the ratio of output over input
• Can be used to analyse how the output varies
according to the input, i.e. the response of the
system

Forward Transfer Function

1 + Loop Transfer Function

 OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE

Damping a Servomechanism’s
Oscillations
• Damping required to bring the output (or control
surface) to its required position with minimum
overshoots.
– Too low damping: response not stable and too many
overshoots
– Too high damping: response (and control) will be
sluggish
• Many different types of damping
– Viscous damping
– Velocity feedback
– Error-rate damping
– Transient Velocity
– Phase advance damping
• These systems are effective in damping out the
 OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE

Derivative and Integral

Control(4)
D:
Diff erentiato

D r I:
Integrator
Error SM:
Servomotor
Detecto  o
r G SM LOA D

I
Position
feedback
• Derivative control (D) : Proportional to the rate of
change of error signal. Is effective during the
transient period when the load oscillates, ie
changes velocity
• Integral control (I): Proportional to the cumulative or
integral of the error signal. Will detect and correct for
any steady state error.
 OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE

Rate Damping vs Autopilot

Control
Rate Damping Autopilot Control

•Related to aircraft stability •Related to control of aircraft

•Stabilisation of aircraft parameter (e.g. •Changing the aircraft parameter (e.g.
pitch attitude) changing pitch attitude)
•Response only comes in after there is •System responds as soon as there is
a
change in rate, leading to time lag.
change in parameter

• Control is difficult to achieve without stability

• Stability augmentation can be integral with
autopilot system or a distinct system by
itself.
 OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE

Second Order Differential

Equations
• Differential equations are mathematical
equations that relate an unknown function (of
one of more variables) to its derivatives.
• Second order differential equation means
that the highest derivative in the equation
is 2nd order. Examples:

• Second Order Differential Equations can be used

to describe the behaviour of many physical
systems (in particular motion of a body),
chemistry, biology and even economics.
 OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE

Motion of a Spring Mass

Damper
 OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE

Relating to Aircraft
Response
• Spring mass damper system quite similar to
aircraft dynamic system
– Spring effect is similar to the natural stability
restoring forces in an aircraft
– Damping is also present in any aircraft motion
– F(t) can used to represent the forces generated
by the control surfaces
Elevator Control

Restoring Moment
Aircraft damping
 OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE

Attitude Sensing Vs Rate

Sensing

Displacement or Attitude Gyro Rate Gyro

-Spin axis (XX1) and inner gimbal - Aircraft movement (rate) results
is fixed in space in precession force on the gyro
-Measures the aircraft attitude from -Slower response since a rate
the reference must occur in the first place
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Schematic of Simple Rate

Damper

•Use of rate gyro feedback to produce elevator deflection proportional

to the pitch rate and adding it to the pilot’s input.
•For example, disturbance pitches the aircraft nose up
•Rate gyro senses disturbance and generates a positive signal proportional
to the pitch rate
•Rate gyro signal is fedback as an additional signal to deflect the elevator
•A positive gyro signal will cause the elevator to deflect downwards (or clockwise)
- causing the aircraft to pitch downwards to counter the disturbance
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Limitations of Simple Rate

Damper
• Corrective action only starts a short time after
the initial
change (since a rate must first exist)
– May lead to a change in attitude and/or altitude
– Not an attitude hold system since the aircraft may not
return to its original attitude after the oscillations
damp out.
• Unable to distinguish between an actual
disturbance and pilot commanded rate change
– Indiscriminate damping may lead to sluggish handling
• Nose tends to drop during a level turn
– During an aircraft turn, a pitch up force is required to
maintain the aircraft in the turn.
– The rate damper senses this pitch up force and sends
a pitch down command to ‘correct’.
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Stability Augmentation Systems (SAS)

• Unlike a pitch rate damper, the SAS computer

gets both the pitch attitude and pitch rate
error signals.
• Rate error signal stops the oscillations and
while the attitude information returns the
aircraft to the original attitude.
• “Leaky” integrator integrates the rate
information to get the aircraft’s pseudo-
attitude. The attitude information from 20 to
30 seconds ago is stored and compared with
the current attitude information – which is
used to correct when there is a deviation from
the original attitude.
• Performance affected by the sensitivity of the
rate gyro and the time constant of integrator
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Stability Augmentation Systems (SAS)(5)

• When there is a pilot

command, the rate
sensing switch and stick-
in-detent switch will
open.

• Aircraft will respond to

the pilot command
without the tendency to
revert to the original
datum attitude.
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Aeroplane
A power-driven heavier-than-air aircraft, deriving its lift in flight from
aerodynamic reactions on surfaces which remain fixed under given
conditions of flight;

Video Credits: https://youtu.be/pTNeA1GR6AQ

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Rotorcraft-Helicopter
A power-driven heavier-than-air aircraft supported in flight by the
reactions of the air on one or more rotors

Video Credits: https://youtu.be/EtosYKXYEjs

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Rotorcraft – Multirotor
A power-driven heavier-than-air aircraft supported in flight by the
reactions of the air on one or more rotors

Video Credits: https://youtu.be/gUZQ0Qllwyc

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Powered-Lift
A heavier-than-air aircraft capable of vertical take-off, vertical landing, and low-speed
flight, which depends principally on engine-driven lift devices or engine thrust for the
lift during these flight regimes and on non-rotating aerofoil(s) for lift during horizontal
flight.

Video Credits: https://youtu.be/lVY55hxu3Y8

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Airship
Power-driven lighter-than-air aircraft.

Video Credits: https://youtu.be/_10p6EWljAI

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Comparison of UA for various

applications
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Airfram
e
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Airfram
e
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Landing Gears
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Landing Gear
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Electrical System
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Propeller
s
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Servo
s
• Servos are used primarily to physically move
control surfaces on airplanes and articulate
swash plates on helicopters.
• They can also be adapted to move other
aircraft components, such as landing gear,
camera mounts, and bay doors
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Flight Controller

• Flight controller is the brain of the UA.

• Interprets the inputs from sensors and the remote
pilot’s
controller commands.
• Onboard sensors often include GPS, an inertial
measurement unit (IMU), an altimeter, and a
magnetometer (i.e., a fancy compass)
• Various autonomous flight modes can be controlled
through the
flight controller.
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Ground Control System

• (GCS)
A UAS requires a collection of ground based-system
components to receive telemetry information and
video feed from the UA.
• These components are essential in order to operate
safely
and effectively.
• These components are commonly referred to
together as a Ground Control Station. (GCS)
GCS

Telemetry
Command &
Interface Device Transceive Video Receiver
Control
r (Tx/Rx)
(C2)

PC/Tablet/Mobile Payload Interface

Device (Monitor)
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Command & Control (C2)

•System
The C2 component of the GCS is usually a Remote-
Control
Transmitter (RC Tx).
• Serves as primary means of controlling the aircraft
when it is not in an autonomous flight mode.
• Certain mission control software can execute flight
without the need for an RC Tx and may also be
replaced with gamepads, joystick etc.
• Current systems operate at a frequency of
approximately 2.4Ghz and commonly advertised
range of about 700m to 1km.
• The frequency used and power must comply with
Infocomm Media Development Authority (IMDA)’s Short
Range Devices framework.
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Transmitter (Command and

•Control)
4 different transmitter modes as shown
below
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Geographic Coordinate System

• A geographic coordinate system
(GCS) uses a three-dimensional
spherical surface to define
locations on the earth

• Two common s
method

Universal Transverse Mercator Latitude and longitude

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Universal Transverse Mercator

(UTM)
• A UTM zone is a 6° segment of the Earth.
Because the globe is 360° in circumference,
this means that there are 60 UTM zones on
Earth
UTM Zone
Each zone will then form the basis of a
separate map projection

To envision the flattening, consider a detached

zone as a strip of orange peel placed on a level
surface.

By depressing its centre, one could force the

peel to
flatten until all of it touches the smooth surface.

This flattening action results in a slight distortion

of the geographical features within the zone,
but because the zone is relatively narrow, the
distortion is small and may be ignored by most
map-users.
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Comparison between GPS and

GLONASS
Parameter GPS GLONASS
Total Satellites 33 26

Satellites in Orbit 31 24

Orbital Height (km) 20 180 19 130

Accuracy (cm) 30 – 500 280 – 738

Operator United States Space Roscosmos (Russia)

Force
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Layers of the
Atmosphere
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Weather
•Changes
The primary source of all weather changes is
the sun.
• It heats the surface of the earth at varying
rates, depending not only on cloud cover and
the angle at which the sun’s rays strike the
earth but on the type of surface being heated.
• Example:
• Land changes temperature far more rapidly than
water;
• Deserts, urban areas (i.e., concrete and asphalt),
and barren areas change temperature faster than
forested areas;
• Cloud cover affects the rate at which any surface
gains and loses heat.
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Temperature

pressure
temperature

The temperature
sinks with a constant
rate of
6.5 K /1000 m.
At 11 600 m the
temperature
reaches -56oC and
remains constant.
11 600 m
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Humidi
ty
• Humidity, also called relative humidity, refers
to the amount of water vapor contained in
the atmosphere and is expressed as a
percentage of the maximum amount of
water vapor the air can hold.
• This amount varies with temperature.
• Warm air holds more water
vapor, while cold air holds
less.
• Perfectly dry air that contains no
water vapor has a relative
humidity of zero percent, while
saturated air, which cannot hold
any more water vapor, has a
relative humidity of 100
percent.
• The temperature at which the air becomes
saturated and can contain no more moisture,
without that moisture getting you wet, is
called the dew point.
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Effects of density altitude on UA

• Air density is affected by changes in altitude,
temperature, and humidity.
• The density of air has significant effects on the UA’s
performance. as air becomes less dense, it reduces:
• Power, because the engine takes in less air
• Thrust, because the propeller is less efficient in thin air
• Lift, because the thin air exerts less force on the airfoils
• In summary:
• As the density of the air increases (lower density altitude),
aircraft
performance increases;
• conversely as air density decreases (higher density
altitude), aircraft performance decreases.
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Altimetry Terms
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Types of Winds - Head Wind

• There are several types of wind conditions a
UA user might experience in flight:

Head Wind

• Wind direction is blowing against the direction

of flight.
• Pilot will need to push the pitch stick more to
counter higher head wind speeds. UA’s back
motors will be working harder.
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Types of Winds - Tail Wind

Tail wind

• Wind direction is blowing in the same direction

of flight.
• UA will move faster/higher ground speed unless
pilot pulls back on the pitch stick, front motors
will work harder to slow down the aircraft
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Types of Winds - Cross

Wind

Cross wind
• Wind direction is blowing perpendicular to the
direction of flight.
• Cross wind will cause UA to move laterally. Pilot
will have to counter against the x-wind direction
with the roll stick movement thus the left/right
motors to work harder to maintain position.
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Learning Phase
3 Law
Air
• Explain Air Law and UA legislation specific to Civil
Aviation Authority of Singapore (CAAS) regulatory
requirements and penalties pertaining to UA
operations in Singapore.
 Air Navigation Act
 Air Navigation (101- Unmanned Aircraft
Operations) Regulations 2019
 Airspace
 UA Registration
 Permits
 UA Pilot Licence
 UA Basic Training
 Penalties
• Students to participate in interactive
activities and
team discussions.
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Offence 1st Offence 2nd Offence

Other penalties m ANA & ANR- 1
Unauthorised discharge from
froaircraft
Unmanned 10 Fine not exceeding $20,000

Unauthorised photography over

protected areas

Unauthorised flight over any protected

area declared under section 7 Fine not exceeding $20,000 or to imprisonment not
exceeding 12 months, or both

Failure to comply with directions given

by enforcement officer during
operation of unmanned aircraft

Trespassing of aerodromes Fine not exceeding $5000

 OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE

Offence 1st Offence 2nd Offence

Notable
i)Operating a registrable UA that is not
n ANR-
Penalties i
registered, or cause or permit an 101
individual to operate a registrable UA Fine of up to $10,000, or imprisonment not exceeding
that is not registered in Singapore. 6 months, or both
ii) Tampering of Registration labels

Operator who fail to comply with the Fine up to $50,000, or

UAPL requirements imprisonment not Fine up to $100,000, or
exceeding 2 years, or imprisonment not
Operate an UA without activity or both exceeding 5 years, or both
operator permits

Fine not exceeding

Operator who fail to produce a valid UA $40,000 or
Basic Training certificate, UAPL, activity Fine not imprisonment not
or operator permit during verification exceeding $20,000 exceeding 15 months, or
checks by enforcement officers Both
 OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE

Offence
Other penalties m ANA & 1st Offence 01 2nd Offence
Failure to report accidents.
fro ANR-1
Fine not exceeding Fine not exceeding
$50,000 $100,000
Fail to comply with the UABTO, UATO,
AFE, UA Operator responsibilities.

Operation of unmanned aircraft in

prohibited areas
Fine of up to $50000 or Fine of up to $100,000 or
imprisonment up to 2 imprisonment up to 5
Prohibited use of psychoactive years, or both years, or both
substances

Carriage of dangerous materials on

unmanned aircraft
Fine not exceeding $100,000 or to imprisonment not
exceeding 5 years, or both
Dangerous Flying
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Recreation Purpose
“Recreation Purpose” means any pursuit or activity engaged
in for
enjoyment, relaxation or leisure, but not:

a)a sporting activity that forms part of an organized group

activity or organized competition or tournament (such
as a flying display).
b)a recreational activity provided by a business.
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Education Purpose
“Education Purpose” means any lecture,
tutorial, seminar, demonstration, class or
similar activity on UA provided by an
educational institution as defined in section 72
of the Private Education Act (Cap. 247A).
Examples include:
a) A teacher of a public educational institute educating
students on UA.
b) Students of a public educational institute exhibiting
their UA as part of a school event.
c) Students of a university or tertiary institute
mentioned in section 72 of the Private
Education Act (Cap. 247A) conducting flight
tests as part of their final year project.
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Non-recreation Or Non-education Purpose

“Non-recreation Or Non-education Purpose” (Business)
means a profession or trade or an occupation or
undertaking, whether or not conducted on a regular,
repetitive or continuous basis and whether or not
engaged in or carried on for a fee or profit.
Examples include:
a) A business providing aerial surveying or photography services
to a public educational institute.
b) An organization conducting a flight demonstration with its UA to
its
prospective customers.
c) An organizer conducting competitive UA races.
d) A company using its UA to carry out inspections of its facilities
or properties.
e) A government agency (excluding the Singapore Armed Forces)
using its UA to perform aerial surveillance, aerial fire-fighting or as
part of the provision of emergency or essential services.
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Danger, Prohibited, Restricted Areas

• Danger Area
• An airspace of defined dimensions within which
activities dangerous to the flight of aircraft may exist
at specified times.
• Created to caution operators or pilots of aircraft that it is
necessary for them to assess the dangers in relation to
their responsibility for the safety of their aircraft
• Prohibited Area
• An airspace of defined dimensions, above the land
areas or territorial waters of a State, within which the
flight of aircraft is prohibited.
• Flight is not permitted at any time under any
circumstances
• Restricted area
• An airspace of defined dimensions, above the land
areas or territorial waters of a State, within which the
flight of aircraft is restricted in accordance with
certain specified conditions.
• Flight is not absolutely prohibited but may be made only if
 OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE

UA
Registration
Any UA above 250g must be registered before it can be
operated
in Singapore and registrants must be at least 16 years
old at
Registration.

The UA registration is a two-step process:

1) Purchase of a registration label
2) Completion of an online registration via the
CAAS
https://esoms.caas.gov.sg/uaportal/index.ht
ml
 OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE

Activity Permit
(AP)
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Offence 1st Offence 2nd Offence

Other penalties m ANA & ANR-
Unauthorised discharge from
Fine not exceeding $20,000
fro
Unmanned aircraft 101
Unauthorised photography over
protected areas

Unauthorised flight over any protected

area declared under section 7 Fine not exceeding $20,000 or to imprisonment not
exceeding 12 months, or both

Failure to comply with directions given

by enforcement officer during operation
of unmanned aircraft

Trespassing of aerodromes Fine not exceeding $5000

 OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE

Offence 1st Offence 2nd Offence

Notable
i)Operating a registrable UA that is not n ANR-
registered, or cause or permit an
Penalties i
individual to operate a registrable UA 101
Fine of up to $10,000, or imprisonment not exceeding
that is not registered in Singapore. 6 months, or both
ii) Tampering of Registration labels

Operator who fail to comply with the Fine up to $50,000, or

UAPL requirements imprisonment not Fine up to $100,000, or
exceeding 2 years, or imprisonment not
Operate an UA without activity or both exceeding 5 years, or both
operator permits

Fine not exceeding

Operator who fail to produce a valid UA $40,000 or
Basic Training certificate, UAPL, activity Fine not imprisonment not
or operator permit during verification exceeding $20,000 exceeding 15 months, or
checks by enforcement officers Both
 OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE

Offence 1st Offence 2nd Offence

Other penalties m ANA &
Failure to report accidents. 01
fro ANR-1
Fine not exceeding Fine not exceeding
Fail to comply with the UABTO, UATO, $50,000 $100,000
AFE, UA Operator responsibilities.

Operation of unmanned aircraft in

prohibited areas
Fine of up to $50000 or Fine of up to $100,000 or
imprisonment up to 2 imprisonment up to 5
Prohibited use of psychoactive years, or both years, or both
substances

Carriage of dangerous materials on

unmanned aircraft Fine not exceeding $100,000 or to imprisonment not
exceeding 5 years, or both
Dangerous Flying
 OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE

Trim
controls
• Most RC transmitters will include trim sliders next to the two
main control sticks to adjust trim in flight.
• However, if a flight controller is being used, then trimming is
best performed through that system rather than through the
RC transmitter.
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IMSAFE
• One of the best ways pilots can mitigate risk
is a self evaluation to ensure they are in
good health. A standardized method used in
evaluating health employs the IMSAFE
checklist.
1. Illness—Am I sick? Illness is an obvious pilot risk.
2. Medication—Am I taking any medicines that might affect my judgment or
make me
drowsy?
3. Stress—Am I under psychological pressure from the job? Do I have money,
health, or family problems? Stress causes concentration and performance
problems.
4. Alcohol—Have I been drinking within 8 hours? Within 24 hours? As
little as one ounce of liquor, one bottle of beer, or four ounces of wine
can impair flying skills. Alcohol also renders a pilot more susceptible
to disorientation and hypoxia.
5. Fatigue—Am I tired and not adequately rested? Fatigue continues to be
one of the most insidious hazards to flight safety, as it may not be
apparent to a pilot until serious errors are made.
6. Emotion—Have I experienced any emotionally upsetting event?
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PAVE

• One guide in the form of a checklist that helps the

pilot examine areas of interest in his or her preflight
planning is a framework called PAVE
• The I’M SAFE memory aid applies before flight
planning even begins. PAVE applies to the flight you
are about to undertake.
• Elements of PAVE:
• Pilot
• Aircraft
• enVironment
• External Pressure
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Pilot-In-Command (PIC)
• A pilot must continually make decisions about:
• competency,
• condition of health,
• mental and emotional state,
• level of fatigue,
• proper certification,
• flight experience,
• currency
 OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE

Maintenance
Intervals
An example of a maintenance
manual:
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Flight vs Maintenance
Log
Flight Log Maintenance Log
 Keeps track of UA flight  Keeps track of any problems or
activities and flight hours. component replacements

 Keeps track of battery  tracks component life in use, which

usage helps to determine the quality of
components as well as if they are
 Can be physical or digital approaching their service limits.
logbook
 Can be physical or digital
logbook
 OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE

Low
•Battery
Scenario
Low battery warning in mid-flight

Symptoms
• Low battery alert on UA or transmitter

Actions
• Certain UA systems will automatically prompt user to activate Return
Home (RH) function.
• If RH function is not available on your UA system, find an open space
and land UA
immediately.
• Continuing to fly your UA with low battery warning may result in UA
landing in undesirable locations.

Note: Always ensure battery is fully charged before any flight

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Transmitter Signal
•Loss
Scenario
Encounters poor or no signal strength and UA does not
responding to the transmitter
Symptoms
• UA not responding to commands
• No video feed observed on transmitter display
• Transmitter Signal strength icon indicating red
Actions
• UA models with Return Home (RH) function will automatically
return to (RH)
location.
• Acquire visual of your UA in the direction that you had last seen
it.
• UA and transmitter will typically regain connection as UA RH.
• If RH path is clear of obstacles, allow UA to complete RH actions
• If there are obstacles surrounding the RH location, make attempt to
manually land the UA in open space.
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Fly
Away
Scenario
• UA flies off in a un-commanded direction

Symptoms
• UA not responding to commands
• UA does not trigger RTH failsafe

Actions
• Attempt to regain control.
• Notify nearby personnel.
• Command RTH manually.
• Attempt to land.
• Execute emergency motor cut (if applicable)
• If all actions fail, monitor the general direction the uA was flying to and
note the last know GPS coordinates.
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Penalty – Operating UA under

Influence
If the UA user is found to operate the UA under the
influence of any psychoactive substance, the user
shall be subjected to the following penalty:

• For a first offence, to a fine not exceeding $50,000 or

to
imprisonment of up to 2 years or to both.

• For a second or subsequent offence, to a

fine not exceeding $100,000 or to imprisonment
of up to 5 years or to both.
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Fatigue –
Causes
Fatigue is defined as extreme tiredness
resulting from mental or physical illness and
can be caused by:
• Inadequate rest
• Excessive physical activity
• Stress
• Caffeine
• Noise and
vibration for
prolong period
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Fatigue –
• Slower reaction time
Symptoms
• Lower vigilance and cognitive ability
• Loss of short term memory and sustained
attention
• Reduces cognitive ability and coordination
• Appears careless, uncoordinated and
confused

UA accident can arise inadvertently!!!!

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Fatigue – Management
•Techniques
Sleep well
– Between eight to nine hours of daily
sleep are
recommended
– Control Sleeping Environment
 Sleep in darkness
 Control noise
 Control room temperature
• Exercise
• Maintain a proper diet
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Stress -
Causes
• Stress is the body reaction to a
change in environment
• Excites you and increases alertness
• Stress is mainly caused by events
occurring in your
lifestyle or job
Organisation Career Development Personal
Too much/little work Boredom with role Financial problems
Time pressure Stagnant position Relationship
problems
Chang procedures Job loss Ill health
Long hours Marriage, Birth
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Stress -
Symptoms
Short Term
• Physical Symptoms
– Faster heart beat
– Increased sweating
– Cool skin
– Nausea
– Tense
• Performance Effects
– Obstructs clear judgement
– Loss of precision when completing
tasks
– Quality of work drops
– Frustration
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Stress -
Symptoms
Long Term
• Physical
Symptoms
– Health deteriorates
– Behaviour changes

• Performance
Effects
– Cannot think
clearly and
rationally
– Leads to fatigue,
exhaustion,
depression,
breakdown