CARBON

AND ITS
COMPOUND
S
• Carbon is a versatile element. Found in .02% in form of minerals an 03% in
form of CO2
• All living structures are made up of carbon based compounds called organic
compounds
• The atomic number of carbon is 6 and its electronic configuration is 2, 4.
• To attain a noble gas configuration it requires four more electrons in its valence
shell.
• It is difficult for an atom of carbon to either gain or lose electrons as it would be
difficult to hold extra electrons and would require a large amount of energy to
remove four electrons.
• If the carbon atom loses four of its valence electrons, a huge amount of energy
is involved. C4+ ion hence formed, will be highly unstable due to the presence of
six protons and two electrons.
• If the carbon atom gains four electrons to achieve the nearest electronic
configuration of the noble gas, Ne, C4− ion will be formed. But again, a huge
amount of energy is required. Moreover, in C4+ ions it is difficult for 6 protons to
hold 10 electrons.
Covalent Bond

• Carbon attains the noble gas configuration by sharing its valence electrons with other atoms.

• Such mutual sharing of electrons between atoms to attain a stable noble gas configuration is
called Covalent bonding

• Atoms of other elements like hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine also show sharing of valence
electrons

• Depending on the number of electron pairs shared, covalent bond is of three types :
1. Single Covalent Bond
2. Double covalent bond
3. Triple Covalent Bond
Single Covalent Bond:
Single covalent bond is formed because of sharing of two electrons,i.e one pair
Example : Hydrogen,Chlorine,Methane
It is depicted by a single line between the two atoms.

1.Formation of a single bond in a hydrogen molecule:

Each hydrogen atom has a single electron in the valence shell. It requires one more to acquire
the nearest noble gas configuration (He).
Therefore, both the atoms share one electron each and form a single bond.

Atomic number of Hydrogen = 1

Number of valence electrons = 1
2.Formation of a single bond in a chlorine molecule:

Atomic number of chlorine = 17[2,8,7]

Number of valence electrons = 7

2.Formation of a single bond in methane :

Atomic number of Carbon = 6 [2, 4]

Number of valence electrons = 4
Atomic number of Hydrogen = 1
Number of valence electrons = 1
Double covalent bond:
Double bond is formed by sharing of four electrons,i.e two pairs of electrons.
Example : Oxygen molecule, Carbon Dioxide molecule.

It is depicted by double lines between the two atoms.

Formation of a double bond in an oxygen molecule:
Each oxygen atom has six electrons in the valence shell (2, 6). It requires two electrons to acquire
the nearest noble gas configuration (Ne).
Therefore, both the atoms share two electrons each and form a double bond.

Atomic number of Oxygen = 8 [2, 6]

Number of valence electrons = 6
Formation of CO2 Molecule

Atomic number of Carbon = 6 [2, 4]

Number of valence electrons = 4
Atomic number of Oxygen = 8 [2, 6]
Number of valence electrons = 6
Triple Covalent Bond:
Triple covalent bond is formed because of the sharing of six electrons, three pairs of
electrons.
Example :Nitrogen,C2H2

It is depicted
Formation of by triplebond
a triple lines in
between the molecule:
a nitrogen two atoms.
Each nitrogen atom has five electrons in the valence shell (2, 5). It requires three electrons to
acquire the nearest noble gas configuration (Ne).
Therefore, both atoms share three electrons each and form a triple bond.

Atomic number of Nitrogen= 7 [2, 5]

Number of valence electrons = 5
Formation of a triple bond in a ethane(C2H2)
Atomic number of Carbon = 6 [2, 4]
Number of valence electrons = 4
Atomic number of Hydrogen = 1
Number of valence electrons = 1
Properties of Covalent Bonds. –

• Covalently bonded molecules have low melting and boiling points .

• comparatively weaker intermolecular forces, unlike ionic compounds.
• These molecules are generally poor conductor of electricity since no charged
particles are formed.
Allotropes of Carbon

The phenomenon in which the element exists in two or more different physical
states with similar chemical properties are called Allotropy.

• Diamond: Diamond has a regular tetrahedral

geometry. This is because each carbon is
connected to four neighbouring carbon atoms via
single covalent bonds, resulting in a single unit of
a crystal. These crystal units lie in different
planes and are connected to each other,
resulting in a rigid three-
dimensional cubic pattern of the diamond.
• It is the hardest substance and an insulator. It is
used for drilling rocks and cutting. It is also used
for making jewellery.
Graphite
• In graphite, each carbon atom is bonded covalently to
three other carbon atoms, leaving each carbon atom
with one free valency. This arrangement results in
hexagonal rings in a single plane, and such rings are
stacked over each other through weak Van der Waals
forces.
• It is a good conductor of electricity and used as a
lubricant.

C60
• C60, also known as Buckminsterfullerene, is the
very popular and stable form of the known
fullerenes.
It is the most common naturally occurring
fullerene and can be found in small quantities in
soot.
It consists of 60 carbon atoms arranged in 12
pentagons and 20 hexagons, like in a soccer
ball.
Versatile Nature of Carbon

The existence of such a large number of organic compounds is due to the following
nature of carbon,

(i) Catenation:

• The property of a carbon element due to which its atom can join one
another to form long carbon chains ,branched chains of carbon or even
carbon atoms arranged in rings is called catenation.

• Carbon atoms can be linked by single, double or triple bonds

 Straight Chain

Branched Chain Rings

(ii) Tetravalent Nature:

Carbon has valency of four. It is capable of bonding with four other atoms of carbon
or some other heteroatoms with single covalent bond as well as double or triple
bond.

This properties are due to the

•The small size of the carbon atom.

•The great strength of the carbon-carbon bond.
Hydrocarbons

Compounds that are made up of carbon and hydrogen are known

as Hydrocarbons. There are two types of hydrocarbons found
- Saturated Hydrocarbons and Unsaturated Hydrocarbons.
Saturated hydrocarbons:

These hydrocarbons have all carbon-carbon single bonds. These are known as alkanes.
General formula = CnH2n+2 where n = 1, 2, 3, 4.…..
Unsaturated hydrocarbons:
These hydrocarbons have at least one carbon-carbon double or triple bond.

Hydrocarbons with at least one carbon-carbon double bond are called alkenes. General
formula = CnH2n where n = 2, 3, 4…..

Hydrocarbons with at least one carbon-carbon triple bond are called alkynes. General formula
= CnH2n−2 where n = 2, 3, 4…..
Structural Isomerism:

Compounds having the same molecular formula but different structures are called
Structural isomers. Example: Isomers of butane (C4H10)
Heteroatom and Functional Group

• In hydrocarbon chain, one or more hydrogen atoms can be replaced by other atoms in
accordance with their valencies.

• The element that replaces hydrogen is called a hetero atom. These hetero atoms and the
group containing them impart chemical properties to the compound and hence are called
functional groups.

• Or

• An atom or a group of atoms which, when present in a compound, gives specific physical and
chemical properties to it regardless of the length and nature of the carbon chain is called a
functional group.
Classification of Functional Groups
Main Functional Groups:
(i) Hydroxyl group (-OH): All organic compounds containing -OH group are known as
alcohols. For example, Methanol (CH3OH), Ethanol (CH3−CH2−OH), etc.

(ii) Aldehyde group (-CHO): All organic compounds containing -CHO group are known as
aldehydes. For example, Methanal (HCHO), Ethanal (CH 3CHO), etc.

(iii) Ketone group (-C=O): All organic compounds containing (-C=O) group flanked by two
alkyl groups are known as ketones. For example, Propanone (CH 3COCH3), Butanone
(CH3COCH2CH3), etc.

(iv) Carboxyl group (-COOH): All organic acids contain a carboxyl group (-COOH). Hence,
they are also called carboxylic acids.
For example, Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH), Propanoic acid (CH3CH2COOH), etc.

(v) Halogen group (F, CI, Br, I): The alkanes in which one or more than one hydrogen atom
is substituted by- X (F, CI, Br or I) are known as haloalkanes. For example, Chloromethane
(CH3Cl), Bromomethane (CH3Br), etc.
Homologous Series

• Homologous series constitutes organic compounds with the same general formula, and similar
chemical characteristics but different physical properties. The adjacent members differ in their
molecular formula by −CH2.
• The chemical properties are imparted by the functional group thus all members have similar
chemical properties. But the members have different physical properties.
• The physical properties vary among the members of homologous series due to difference in their
molecular mass.
• Melting point and boiling point increases with increasing molecular mass.

Examples of homologous series

Methane, ethane, propane, butane, etc. are all part of the alkane homologous series.
Nomenclature of Carbon Compounds

• The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) decided on some rules for naming carbon
compounds. This was done to maintain uniformity throughout the world. Names which are given on this
basis are popularly known as IUPAC names.

• 1. Identify the number of carbon atoms in the compound.

• 2. Functional group is indicated either by prefix or suffix.
• Functional Group Suffix Prefix
Alkene- ene
Alkyn- yne
Alcohol- ol
Aldehyde- al
Ketone- one
Carboxylic acid- oic acid
chlorine -chloro

• 3. If a suffix is added, then final ‘e’ is removed from the name e.g.methanol (methane-e = methan + ol).
• 4.If the carbon chain is unsaturated, then the final ‘ane’ in the name of the carbon chain is
substituted by ‘ene’ or ‘yne’
Combustion Reactions

Combustion means the burning of carbon or carbon-containing compounds in the

presence of air or oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, heat and light.

(i) C + O2 ® CO2 + heat and light

(ii) CH4 + O2 ® CO2 +2 H2O + heat and

light

(iii) CH3CH2OH + 3O2 ® 2CO2 + 3H2O +

heat and light
• Saturated hydrocarbons give a clean flame, while unsaturated
hydrocarbons give a yellow flame with lots of black smoke.

• In the presence of limited oxygen, even saturated hydrocarbons give

smoky flame.

• The gas and kerosene stove used at home has inlet for air so that,
burnt to given clean blue flame.

• If you observe the bottoms of cooking vessels getting blackened, it

means that the air holes are blocked and fuel is getting wasted.

• Due to presence of small amount of nitrogen and sulphur, coal and

petroleum produces carbon dioxide with oxides of nitrogen and sulphur
which are major pollutant.
 Oxidation

• Oxidation is a chemical reaction that occurs in an atom or compound and

results in the loss of one or more electrons.

• Oxidation of ethanol in presence of oxidizing agents gives ethanoic acid.

• Some substances are capable of adding oxygen to others, are known

as Oxidising Agent.
• Example: Alkaline KMnO4 Potassium permanganate
Acidified K2Cr2O7 Potassium dichromate
 Addition Reaction
• Addition of dihydrogen with unsaturated hydrocarbon in the presence of catalysts
such as nickel or platinum or palladium are known as addition reaction.

• This reaction is commonly used in the hydrogenation of vegetable oils using a

nickel catalyst.
• Process of converting vegetable oil into solid fat (vegetable ghee) is called
Hydrogenation of Oil.

• Vegetable oils generally have long unsaturated carbon chains while animal fats
have saturated
Catalyst: carbon chains.
Substances that cause a reaction to occur or proceeds to
different rate without consuming in it are called a catalyst. For
example; Ni, Pt, Pd, etc.
Substitution Reaction

• Replacement of one or more hydrogen atom of an organic molecule by another

atom or group of the atom is known as Substitution Reaction.
Ethanol (CH3CH2—OH)

• Commonly known as Ethyl Alcohol.

• Ethanol, C2H5OH is a colourless liquid having a pleasant smell.
• It is miscible with water in all proportions.
• It is a nonconductor of electricity (it does not contain ions)
• it is liquid at room temperature
• Ethanol is commonly called alcohol and is the active ingredient of all
alcoholic drinks.
• In addition, because it is a good solvent, it is also used in medicines such
as tincture iodine, cough syrups, and many tonics.
• Consumption of small quantities of dilute ethanol causes drunkenness.
• intake of even a small quantity of pure ethanol (called absolute alcohol) can
be lethal.
• long-term consumption of alcohol leads to many health problems.
Reactions of Ethanol with Sodium

Ethanol reacts with sodium to produce hydrogen gas and sodium

ethoxide. This reaction supports the acidic character of ethanol.

Dehydration Reaction
Ethanol reacts with concentrated sulphuric acid at 443 K to produce ethylene. This
reaction is known as dehydration of ethanol because, in this reaction, a water
molecule is removed from the ethanol molecule.

Substances which removes water from ethanol (alcohols) is known as Dehydrating agent.
For example; Cone. H2SO4.
Ethanoic Acid (CH3COOH)

• Commonly known as Acetic acid.

• 5-8% of ethanoic acid in water is called Vinegar.
• The melting point of pure ethanoic acid is 290 K and hence, it often freezes in cold climate
so named as glacial acetic acid.

Esterification Reaction
Reaction of ethanoic acid with an alcohol in the presence of a few drops of conc. H 2SO4 as
catalyst gives a sweet-smelling substance known as Esters, called Esterification reaction.

Esters are used in making perfumes and flavouring agents.

Reaction of esters with sodium hydroxide, gives alcohol and sodium salt of carboxylic acid (soap).
This reaction is known as Saponification Reaction.

A soap is a sodium or potassium salt of long-chain carboxylic acids

Reaction of Ethanoic Acid with Bases

It reacts with a solution of sodium hydroxide to form sodium ethanoate and water.

CH3COOH+NaOH→CH3COONa+H2O
Reaction of Ethanoic Acid with Carbonates and Bicarbonates

• Ethanoic acid reacts with sodium carbonates and sodium hydrogen carbonates to give rise to
a salt, carbon dioxide and water.
Soaps and Detergents:

• The dirt is generally held to the surface of a dirty cloth by a thin film of oil or grease

• Sodium or potassium salts of long chain fatty acids is called Soap.

• Ammonium and sulphonate salts of long chain fatty acids are called Detergent.

• Water that does not produce lather with soap readily is called Hard water and which
produces lather with soap is called Soft Water.
Hardness of water is due to the presence of bicarbonates, chlorides and sulphate salt of
calcium and magnesium.

• The main advantage of detergent over soaps is that soaps cannot be used in hard water
for washing because hard water reacts with soap to form curdy white precipitate called
Scum.
• Both soaps and detergents cantains two parts. A long hydrocarbon part which is hydrophobic
(water repelling) in nature and a short ionic part which is hydrophillic (water attracting) in
nature.

• The hydrocarbon part of the soap molecule links itself to the oily (dirt) drop and ionic end
orients itself towards water and forms a spherical structure called micelles. The soap micelles
helps in dissolving the dirt in water and wash our clothes.