Hash Functions

Cryptology (UCT723)
Lecture 18
What Problems are We Trying to Solve?
• Authentication
– The process of reliably verifying the identity of someone or
something
• In particular, did a message indeed come from its specified sender?
• Need to guard against:
– Disclosure of a message to any unauthorized person or system
– Messages masquerading as being from a source
– Content modification
• Was the message changed between sender and recipient?)
– Source or destination repudiation
• Can the sender or recipient deny they sent/received the message?

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 Authentication Functions
• Three main classes:
– Message Encryption
• Ciphertext of entire message serves as its authenticator
– Message Authentication Code (MAC)
• Function of the message and a secret key which produces a fixed-length
authenticator value
– Hash Function
• Function which maps a message of any length into a fixed-size hash
authenticator value

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 Message Encryption
• We've already seen various encryption options:
– Symmetric Encryption – provides both confidentiality and authentication
– Public Key Encryption:
C E KU b ( P ) ; P DKRb (C )  provides confidentiality only

C E KRb ( P ) ; P DKU b (C )  provides authentication & signature

C E KU a ( E KRb ( P ) )  provides confidentiality, authentication,

P DKRa ( DKU b (C )) and signature

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 Message Authentication Code (MAC)
• Uses a secret key to generate a small fixed-size block of
data: a Cryptographic Checksum, or MAC

• If Alice and Bob share a common secret key, K, then:

MAC = FK(P)
where:
P is the input plaintext
F is the MAC function
K is the shared secret key
MAC is the resulting message authentication code

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 Message Authentication Code (MAC)
• The MAC is sent to the recipient along with its associated
message
– The recipient uses the same MAC function and key on the message
and compares the result with the transmitted MAC.
– If the two MACs match, the recipient is assured that:
• The message has not been altered, and
• The message is from the alleged sender
– If the message contains a sequence number (e.g. TCP header), then
the recipient is assured of the proper sequencing of messages

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 Message Authentication Code (MAC)
• A MAC function is similar to an encryption function, except
that the MAC function need not be reversible.
• A MAC function is typically a many-to-one function:
– The input messages can be of any length, but
– The output is of fixed length (n bits)
• If an n-bit MAC function (that is, a MAC function that
generates a fixed-size n-bit block) is used, how many
possible MAC values are there?

2 n
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 Message Authentication Code (MAC)
• For example, assume:
– We are using a 10-bit MAC function
– We are using 100-bit messages

• There are:
– 2100 (~ 1.27 * 1030) different possible messages:
– only 210 (1024) different possible MACs
so, on average, each MAC value is generated by a total of
2100 90 27
2 1 . 24 10
210
different messages

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 Message Authentication Code (MAC)
• Here are some basic uses of MACs: P = Plaintext
C = Ciphertext
M = P || FK(P) E = Encryption function
• Plaintext concatenated with MAC F = MAC function
• Provides authentication only K = Key
M = Message sent
M EK 2 ( P || FK1 ( P))
• Symmetric key encrypted ciphertext concatenated with plaintext MAC
• Provides authentication and confidentiality
• Authentication tied to plaintext

C EK 2 ( P) ; M C || FK1 (C ))
• Symmetric key encrypted ciphertext concatenated with ciphertext MAC
• Provides authentication and confidentiality
• Authentication tied to ciphertext

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 Message Authentication Code (MAC)
• Why use MACs for authentication, instead of symmetric
encryption?
– Performance – MAC functions are faster than encryption functions
– Some applications don't care about secrecy/confidentiality, but care a
lot about authentication (e.g. SNMP)
– Separation of authentication and confidentiality provides greater
flexibility.
– Certain applications may wish to prolong the period of
authentication so that a message can undergo several phases of
processing which rely on that authentication.
• As soon as the message is decrypted, the message is no longer protected
against modification
• A MAC can be kept with the message to retain this protection.

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 Message Authentication Code (MAC)
• One of the most widely used MACs is the Data
Authentication Algorithm (DAA), based on on DES
– DAA is both a FIPS publication (FIPS PUB 113*) and an ANSI
standard (X9.17)
– It uses the Cipher Block Chaining (CBC) mode of operation with an
initialization vector of zero.
– The data are grouped into contiguous 64-bit blocks; if necessary, the
final block is padded on the right with zeroes to form a full 64-bit
block.
– Using the DES encryption algorithm, E, and a secret key, K, a Data
Authentication Code (DAC) is calculated...

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Digital Authentication Algorithm

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 One-Way Hash Functions
• Can be viewed as a variation on a MAC function:
– A Hash Function accepts a variable-size message, M, as input and
produces a fixed-size output, referred to as a Hash Code, or
Message Digest:
h = H(M)
– Unlike a MAC function, a hash code:
• does not use a key, and so
• is a function only of the input message
– A change to any bit (or bits) of the message results in a change to the
hash code, which can provide an error-detection capability.
– A message digest can be used as a fingerprint for a message, to
allow detection of message modification

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 One-Way Hash Functions
• Requirements for a hash function are:
– Can be applied to a block of data of any size
– Produces a fixed-length output
– H(M) is relatively easy to compute for any given M, allowing for
both software and hardware implementations
– For any given value h, it is computationally infeasible to find M such
that h = H(M). This is the One-way Property.
– For any given block, M, it is computationally infeasible to find
M' != M with H(M') = H(M).
• This is called Weak Collision Resistance.
– It is computationally infeasible to find any pair (M, M') such that
H(M) = H(M').
• This is called Strong Collision Resistance.

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 One-Way Hash Functions
• Here are some basic uses of hash functions:

M EK ( P || H ( P))
– Provides confidentiality and authentication

M P || EK ( H ( P))
– Provides authentication (amounts to a MAC)

M P || EKR a ( H ( P))
– Provides authentication
– Also provides a digital signature (because only the sender could have
produced the encrypted hash code)

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 One-Way Hash Functions
• ...and some more:

M E K ( P || E KRa H ( P ))
– Provides confidentiality, authentication and digital signature

M P || H ( P || S ))
– Provides authentication, using a shared secret, S

M EK ( P || H ( P || S ))
– Adds confidentiality to the above mechanism.

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 One-Way Hash Functions
• The drive for hash/message digest algorithms began with
public key cryptography
– RSA was invented, but it was slow enough at that time to make it
impractical when used alone.
– A cryptographically secure message digest algorithm with high
performance would make RSA much more useful.

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 One-Way Hash Functions
• Thus, MD (unpublished) and MD2 (defined in RFC 13191) were
invented by Ron Rivest (of RSA fame)
– MD2 is a 128-bit one-way hash function
• Ralph Merkle (of Xerox at the time, but who had worked at Stanford
with Diffie & Hellman) came up with a message digest algorithm called
SNEFRU2
– It was several times faster than MD2
– It is a 128-bit or 256-bit one-way hash function
• This prompted Rivest to respond with MD4 (defined in RFC 13203)
– MD4 produces a 128-bit hash

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 One-Way Hash Functions
• Weaknesses were found in the MD4 algorithm, so Rivest
came up with MD5 (defined in RFC 13211)
– MD5 is similar to MD4, but improved.
– More complex than MD4, but similar in design
– Also produces a 128-bit hash

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 One-Way Hash Functions
• The NSA designed the Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA)
• The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST),
made it a standard.
– They revised it very late in the game, because of some (unspecified)
weakness that had been found, and changed its name to SHA-11.
– SHA-1 is a 160-bit hash function based on MD4
– Shares much in common with MD5, but has a much more
conservative design.
– 2 or 3 times slower than MD5

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 One-Way Hash Functions
• Because of improving computing environments, the 160-bit
hash of SHA-1 is now becoming a liability
• So NIST produced SHA-256, SHA-384, and SHA-5121.
– Designed to be used with the 128-, 192- and 256-bit key sizes of
AES.
– Structure similar to SHA-1, but much slower.
– According to Ferguson & Schneier, they are too new to have
experienced significant cryptanalysis attacks, and so are not yet
proven. But they also say that MD5 and SHA-1 are not sufficiently
secure, so you may have little choice.

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 Typical Usage of Digests
• Here's an example of the use of SHA-1 in a real application – Java JAR files:
– In the jce.jar (Java Cryptography Extension) JAR file, the manifest
contains the following:
Manifest-Version: 1.0
Created-By: 1.4.1-internal (Sun Microsystems Inc.)

Name: javax/crypto/SealedObject.class
SHA1-Digest: R+GWl6Zuqgtty1zOaP5RrRSGfQo=

Name: javax/crypto/KeyAgreementSpi.class
SHA1-Digest: fdmlqpiTKMzV65+93O4tJ3Uo6wg=

Name: javax/crypto/spec/DESedeKeySpec.class
SHA1-Digest: Q7UJvLuk8GST42GW6xDlXHe3Xv8=

Name: javax/crypto/spec/DHParameterSpec.class
SHA1-Digest: y0oY9yd/BQQxEc/2q1Cytta/r2E=

Name: javax/crypto/interfaces/DHPrivateKey.class
SHA1-Digest: jwgw7pakTyKOlLBNivsp6V6Ad4k=

...

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 One-Way Hash Functions
• Ferguson & Schneier recommend the following:
– They don't feel that any of the existing hash functions is sufficiently
secure when used as is.
– So, they define a double hash function, hd = h(h(m))
– They recommend the use of SHAd-256, or, for higher security levels,
SHAd-512

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 HMAC
• HMAC is an attempt to use a hash function to build a MAC.
• Note that:
– Hash functions provide only n/2 bits of security against some attacks
– A MAC function is expected to provide n bits of security.
– Defining:
MAC(K, m) = h(K || m), or h(m || K), or h(K || m || K)
is not secure if you use one of the standard hash functions.
• HMAC was proven to be secure if the underlying hash
function's underlying compression function was secure.

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 HMAC
• HMAC takes a variable length key and a
variable length message, and produces a
fixed-size output that is the same size as the
underlying hash function.
– It first pads the key with 0 bits to 512 bits
– If the key is larger than 512 bits, it first hashes
the key, resulting in 128 or 160 bits, and then
pads the result out to 512 bits.
– It then XORs the padded key with a constant
string of octets of value 36 (hex), then
concatenates the result with the message, and
computes a hash (digest)
– It XORs the padded key with a different
constant string of octets of value 5C (hex),
concatenates that with the result of the of the
first hash, and computes a second hash on that.

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 HMAC
• Examples of HMAC algorithms are:
– HmacMD5 – uses the MD5 hash algorithm
– HmacSHA1 – uses the SHA-1 hash algorithm

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