Digital Image Processing, 2nd ed. www.imageprocessingbook.

com

Chapter 12
Object Recognition

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 Digital Image Processing, 2nd ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

Patterns and Pattern Classes

• Patterns and features

• Pattern classes: a pattern class is a family of patterns
that share some common properties
• Pattern recognition: to assign patterns to their
respective classes
• Three common pattern arrangements used in practices
are
– Vectors
– Strings
– Trees

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

 Digital Image Processing, 2nd ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

Patterns and Pattern Classes

Vector Example

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

 Digital Image Processing, 2nd ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

Patterns and Pattern Classes

Another Vector Example
• Here is another example of pattern vector generation.
• In this case, we are interested in different types of noisy
shapes.

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

 Digital Image Processing, 2nd ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

Patterns and Pattern Classes

String Example
• String descriptions adequately generate patterns of objects and
other entities whose structure is based on relatively simple
connectivity of primitives, usually associated with boundary
shape.

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

 Digital Image Processing, 2nd ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

Patterns and Pattern Classes

Tree Example
• Tree descriptions is more powerful than string ones.
• Most hierarchical ordering schemes lead to tree structure.

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

 Digital Image Processing, 2nd ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

Patterns and Pattern Classes

Tree Example

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

 Digital Image Processing, 2nd ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

Recognition Based on
Decision-Theoretic Methods

• Decision-theoretic approaches to recognition are based on the

use decision functions.
• Let x ( x1 , x2 ,..., xn )Trepresent an n-dimensional pattern vector.
For W pattern classes 1 , 2 ,..., W , we want to find W decision
functions d1 (x), d 2 (x),..., dW (x) with the property that, if a pattern x
belongs to class i , then
d i ( x)  d j ( x) j 1,2,...,W ; j i
• The decision boundary separating class i and  j is given by
d i (x) d j (x) or d i (x)  d j (x) 0

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

 Digital Image Processing, 2nd ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

Recognition Based on Decision-Theoretic Methods

Matching

• Minimum distance classifier

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

 Digital Image Processing, 2nd ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

Recognition Based on Decision-Theoretic Methods

Matching by Correlation

• The correlation between f(x,y) and w(x,y) is

c( x, y )   f ( s, t ) w( x  s, y  t )
s t

for x 0,1,2,..., M  1,
y 0,1,2,..., N  1

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

 Digital Image Processing, 2nd ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

Recognition Based on Decision-Theoretic Methods

Matching by Correlation

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

 Digital Image Processing, 2nd ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

Recognition Based on Decision-Theoretic Methods

Optimum Statistical Classifiers

• Bayes classifier for Gaussian pattern classes

( x m j )2

1 2 2j
d j ( x)  p ( x |  j ) p ( j )  e p ( j )
2  j

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

 Digital Image Processing, 2nd ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

Recognition Based on Decision-Theoretic Methods

Optimum Statistical Classifiers

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

 Digital Image Processing, 2nd ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

Recognition Based on Decision-Theoretic Methods

Optimum Statistical Classifiers

• Classification of multi-spectral data using the Bayes classifier

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

 Digital Image Processing, 2nd ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

Recognition Based on Decision-Theoretic Methods

Optimum Statistical Classifiers

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

 Digital Image Processing, 2nd ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

Recognition Based on Decision-Theoretic Methods

Neural Networks

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

 Digital Image Processing, 2nd ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

Recognition Based on Decision-Theoretic Methods

Neural Networks

• Illustration of the perceptron algorithms

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

 Digital Image Processing, 2nd ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

Recognition Based on Decision-Theoretic Methods

Multilayer Feedforward Neural Networks

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

 Digital Image Processing, 2nd ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

Recognition Based on Decision-Theoretic Methods

Multilayer Feedforward Neural Networks

• The activation function: a sigmoid function

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

 Digital Image Processing, 2nd ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

Recognition Based on Decision-Theoretic Methods

Multilayer Feedforward Neural Networks

Pattern vectors were generated by computing the normalized

signatures of the shapes (see Section 11.1.3)
© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods
 Digital Image Processing, 2nd ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

Recognition Based on Decision-Theoretic Methods

Multilayer Feedforward Neural Networks

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

 Digital Image Processing, 2nd ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

Recognition Based on Decision-Theoretic Methods

Multilayer Feedforward Neural Networks

Rt denote a value of R
used to generate
training data.
Rt =0 implies noise-free
training.

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

 Digital Image Processing, 2nd ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

Recognition Based on Decision-Theoretic Methods

Multilayer Feedforward Neural Networks

N: the number of
training patterns

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

 Digital Image Processing, 2nd ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

Recognition Based on Decision-Theoretic Methods

Multilayer Feedforward Neural Networks

• Complexity of decision surface

– Two input, tow-layer, feedforward neural networks

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

 Digital Image Processing, 2nd ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

Recognition Based on Decision-Theoretic Methods

Multilayer Feedforward Neural Networks

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

 Digital Image Processing, 2nd ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

Structural Methods
Matching Shape Number

• Let a and b denote shape numbers of closed boundaries

represented by 4-directional chain codes. There two shapes
have a degree of similarity k if
s j (a ) s j (b), for j 4,6,8,..., k
s j (a ) s j (b), for j k  2, k  4,...

where s indicates shape number and the subscript indicates

order (see Section 11.2.2)
• The distance between two shapes a and b defined as
1
D ( a, b) 
k

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

 Digital Image Processing, 2nd ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

Structural Methods
Matching Shape Number

Shape no. order

Similarity tree
© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods
 Digital Image Processing, 2nd ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

Structural Methods
Matching Shape Number

Similarity tree Similarity matrix

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

 Digital Image Processing, 2nd ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

Structural Methods
String Matching

• Suppose that two region boundaries, a and b, are coded into

strings (see Section 11.5) denoted a1, a2, …, an and b1, b2,
…,bm, respectively.
• Let  represent the number of matches between the two
strings, where a match occurs in the kth position if ak = bk .
• The number of symbols that do not match is
 max( a , b )  
• A simple measure of similarity between a and b is the ratio
 
R 
 max( a , b )  

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

 Digital Image Processing, 2nd ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

Structural Methods
String Matching

• Strings were formed from the polygons by

computing the interior angle,  , between segments
as each polygon was traversed clockwise.
• Angles were coded into one of eight possible
symbols, corresponding to 45o increments.
1 : 0   45o ;  2 : 45o   90o ;...
© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods
 Digital Image Processing, 2nd ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

Structural Methods
String Matching

• Figure 12.25(e) shows the results of computing the measure R

for six samples of object 1 against themselves.
• The notation 1.c refers to the third string from object class 1.

Figure 12.25 (e) Figure 12.25 (f)

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods
 Digital Image Processing, 2nd ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

Structural Methods
String Matching

• Figure 12.25(g) shows a tabulation of R values obtained by

comparing strings of one class against the other.
• Note that all R values are considerable smaller than any entry in
the two preceding tabulations.
• The R measure achieved a
high degree of discrimination
between the two classes of
objects.

Figure 12.25 (g)

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods
 Digital Image Processing, 2nd ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

Structural Methods
Syntactic Recognition of Strings

• String grammars
– Step1: Object class
generation using a
regular string
grammar
– For example:
the srting of Fig.
12.26(c) is abbbbbc.

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

 Digital Image Processing, 2nd ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

Structural Methods
Syntactic Recognition of Strings

• String grammars
– Step 2: use of semantics (production rules)

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

 Digital Image Processing, 2nd ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

Structural Methods
Syntactic Recognition of Strings

• String grammars
– Step 3: automata as string recognizers

String: abbbbbc

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

 Digital Image Processing, 2nd ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

Structural Methods
Syntactic Recognition of Trees

• Tree grammars
• Production rules
– Example
S→a
|
X1

X1 → c
/ \
X2 X3
• Tree automata

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

 Digital Image Processing, 2nd ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

Structural Methods
Syntactic Recognition of Trees

• Processing stages of a tree automata

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

 Digital Image Processing, 2nd ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

Structural Methods
Syntactic Recognition of Trees

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods

 Digital Image Processing, 2nd ed. www.imageprocessingbook.com

Structural Methods
Syntactic Recognition of Trees

© 2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods