WACHEMO UNIVERSITY

Collage of Agriculture,
Department of RDAE

Course Title: Gender and youth in Development(RDAE 272) for Year II

Semester II Agro. eco students Cr.hr 2

Instructor's Name: Teketel M. (MSc)

Wachemo University, 2023

Brain storming question
 What is the difference b/n gender & sex?

 Why we(Ethiopian) focusing on gender and

youth issues?
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION TO GENDER
Gender and its difference from Sex

 These two words are being used interchangeably, but they are
different.
 Gender and sex

 Gender refers to the roles and responsibilities of men and

women that are created in our families, societies and cultures.

 Gender is :
 not something we are born with and not something we have,
it is but something we do/something we perform.
 Gender roles and expectations are learned.
 It is not biologically predetermined nor is it fixed forever.
Cont…

 The concept of gender also includes the expectations held

about the characteristics, aptitudes and likely behaviors of both
women and men (femininity and masculinity).
 It is related with the answers to the following questions.
How are women's and men's identities shaped by society?
How do we learn to become 'proper' women and men?
How do gender relations intersect with race and class and are
they still a site of inequality?

 Gender is also a result of social and ideological experiences

mediated by socialization.
 Cont…
 However, Sex describes the biological differences between men and women.
 It refers to a person’s biological status and is typically categorized as male,
female or intersex.
 Table1: difference b/n gender and sex

Gender Sex

Socially constructed Biologically defined

Different between and within cultures Universal

Determined by culture Determined by birth

Being changed over time b/c of civilization Unchanging

 1.2. Essential Concepts of Gender
 Gender is widely used to explain the position of women
with respect to men in different aspects of life.

 Gender; in a given society governs the allocation of

resources, tasks and power at different levels
(individual, the household and society).

 Hence, we should be able to understand/ and be sensitive

to the existing gender relationship in a given society and
act/ plan / and design our activities accordingly.
 1.3. Gender division of Labor

 In all societies men and women play different roles, have

different needs, and face different constraints

 Genderroles differ from the biological roles of men and

women, although they may overlap in nearly all societies

 Gender roles are socially constructed, learned, & dynamic

◦ It is concerned with socially determined ideas and practices
which define what roles and activities are considered
appropriate for women and men
Cont…
 Gender roles are learned behaviors in a given
society/community or that condition which activities, tasks and
responsibilities are perceived as of male or female.

 Gender division of labour /GDL is the result of how each

society divides work among men and women according to what
is considered suitable or appropriate to each gender

 These gender-differentiated roles are moreover shaped by

ideological, historical, religious, ethnic, economic and
cultural determinants.
 Different gender roles can generally be categorized in to three:-
productive, reproductive, and community management
1.3.1 Triple roles of gender
1. Production Role
The productive role of women relates to work performed by
women and men for pay in cash or kind (market production,
informal production, home production, subsistence
production). Is a work done to obtain payment in cash or kind.
It includes both market production with an exchange-value,
and subsistence/home production with actual use-value
 Both women and men undertake this role.

 However, the role is mainly considered to be men’s role

and even if women undertake their role is mostly

unrecognized.
E.g. Wage workers, farming activity…
Cont…
1. Reproductive role
 In most societies, reproductive role mostly tend to fall upon the

shoulders of women

Three levels of reproductions are:

Biological reproduction comprises child birth and lactation

Labor reproduction involves the daily regeneration of the

labour force through cooking, cleaning, washing, nursing and
so on
Cont…
 Social reproduction is all embracing category that is
maintenance of ideological conditions which reproduce class
relations and uphold the social and economic status

 Since, they work to transform goods and services for

household use and welfare;
 women remain outside the domain of public life and politics.
Cont..

3. Community management role

 These are activities undertaken at local community level.
 It includes voluntary unpaid or paid work, undertaken in “free
& volunteer time”.
 It is important for the spiritual and cultural development of
communities and as a vehicle for community organization and
self determination.
e.g. Idir, Ekub, Debo, wedding, ….
Cont…
 Both men and women play these multiple roles
 However, mostly the triple role of women is not recognized.

 Productive work is considered as work while reproductive and

community activities are not.

 Majority of the work done by women becomes

invisible/unseen.
1.3.2. Practical & Strategic Gender Needs
 Because the roles of men and women in societies are often
different, their needs and interests vary accordingly.
 Women and men play different roles, have differential access to
and control over resources and face different types of
constraints.
 When planning development interventions, it is often
assumed that household members have the same needs.
 In these cases, women's needs are often not expressed.
 Hence, it is good to see d/t needs of gender in brief so that
development planning considers difference in gender need
Cont…
1.Practical Gender Needs
 PGNs are a response to immediate perceived necessity,

identified within a specific context.

 Practical gender needs are to do with what people need to

perform their current roles more easily, effectively and

efficiently...
 They are practical in nature and often inadequacies in living

conditions such as water provision, health care and

employment.
 Projects can be designed to meet the practical gender needs of

both men and women without necessarily changing their

relative position in society.
Cont…

2. Strategic gender needs(SGN)

 SGN is a need that questions the traditional roles that women

and men play in society

 Are the needs women identify because of their subordinate

position in society.
 SGN is a response to inequalities in decision-making positions

and long-term benefits.

 They relate to gender divisions of labour, power and control,

and may include such issues as legal rights, domestic violence,

equal wages, and women’s control over their
bodies/resources.
 Meeting SGNs assists women to achieve greater equality and

change existing roles, thereby challenging women’s

subordinate/lesser position.
Cont…
 Addressing the strategic needs of both women and men requires
long-term planning, and requires work with both to bring about
changes in gender relations.

 Strategic needs and strategic policies are directly concerned

with changing the status quo /not participaratory:
challenging socially defined roles and tackling gender
subordination in society.

 Addressing SGN can improve the position of women in society

and empower them and change (transform) the existing gender
relations to achieve greater equality.
Cont…
 Activities which address strategic gender needs
include: -
 Achieving equality of legal rights such as land tenure;
 Improving access to productive resources;
 Enhancing participation in decision-making;
 Acquiring equal opportunities in employment;
 Taking up positions of power; and
 Gaining the right to participate in decisions about
development interventions.
1.4. Feminist Theory
 Feminist theory is a set of ideas originating with the
belief that women are not subordinate to men
 Feminist theory encompasses a range of ideas,

reflecting the diversity of women worldwide.

 Feminism counters traditional philosophy with new

ways of addressing issues affecting humanity, calling
for the replacement of the presiding patriarchal order
with a system that emphasizes equal rights, justice,
and fairness.
Cont…
 Liberal feminists cite women's oppression as rooted in social, political, and
legal constraints.
 Radical libertarian feminists hold that the patriarchal system that oppresses
women must be completely eliminated and that women should be free to
exercise total sexual and reproductive freedom.
 Radical cultural feminists urge women to extricate themselves from the
institution of compulsory heterosexuality. Liberation of women through
individual change of women
 Marxist–socialist feminists claim it is impossible for anyone, especially
women, to achieve true freedom in a class-based society.
 Modern feminism, which began 200 years ago, has evolved in three waves.
 The first wave dealt with suffrage;
 The second centered on equal access; and
 The current wave is focusing on global equality.
 Postmodern feminists challenge Western dualistic thinking.
-Global feminists stress the universal interests of women worldwide.
-Ecofeminists focus on the connection among humans to the nonhuman
world.
1.5. Policy approaches to women and development
 Over the years development programs have been criticized for
ignoring gender roles and the impact it has on women in the
global south.
 However, we see a shift to integrate women into development

programs in hopes of eradicating poverty and low social,

economical status.
 Despite the effort to reinforce gender mainstreaming into

society, we still see a vast number of gender inequality

especially in the developing world.
 Women make up the 70% of individuals living in poverty and

in sub-Saharan Africa, 57% of HIV infected individuals are

women.
Cont…
 This also includes the disproportionate ratio of women to
men in the job, market and at leadership position, low
level of education and low socio-economic status among
women.
 In the mid 1970s, it was widely recognized that alternative
strategies that focus on people both as subject and objects of
development was needed.
 Hence, the client oriented/people centered participatory
development approach was needed.
 Unlike the previous approaches, this one seemed to have
room for women.
 The realization that men and women are situated and
impacted by development differently has led for the
attention of women’s issue which developed into gender
issues.
 1.5.1.Women in development(WID) approach
 the Second Development Decade, 1971-80, the importance of the “full

integration of women in the total development efforts,” was emphasized.

 The Equity approach aimed at gaining equity for women in the

development process. Women were seen as active participants in

development.
 The main goal was to integrate women into the development process

more productively. The key route through this could be achieved which
was equality of opportunity through education and training. A number of
committees within professional associations, new women′s groups and
others were formed.
 They came together on important issues like equal pay for equal work,

greater visibility of women within professional organizations, equal

rights amendment, and so on.
 This led to the formation of many women′s pressure groups especially

the ones concerning Women in Development (WID).

Cont…
 The advocates of WID pointed out to the phenomena that many scholars had
observed, particularly in the developing countries i.e. the adverse impact that
development seemed to have on women.
 The feminization of poverty and the growing number of women headed
households as a result of the development policies was also highlighted.
 They were not benefiting significantly from it and in some instances their
existing status and position in society was actually being made worse by
development.
 The WID approach saw the problem as the exclusion of women from
development programmes and approaches.
 The W.I.D approach mainly focuses on women and their lack of participation
as the main problem.
 Women subordination is seen in terms of their exclusion from the market
sphere and limited access to and control over resources hence the main goal
of the approach is a more and effective development that includes women
-as a result, the solution was seen as integrating women into such
programmes.
 Cont…

 The rational argument of this approach is that women are

unused resources who can provide economic contributions to
development.
 The approach perceives problems of women in terms of their

‘sex’ – their biological differences from men.

 Nutrition, health, education, child care, family planning and skills

training were some of the major components of the WID

programs.
 In addition, the WID approach argued for the integration of

women into development programmes and planning.

Cont…
 For instance, a major emphasis on income-generating
projects for women as a means of integration.
 Welfare oriented projects dealing with small income-

generating projects and activities mostly aimed at women’s

reproductive role; where nutrition, education and family
planning were a main features.
 However, WID did not call for changes in the overall

social structure or economic system in which women were

to be included.
 WID concentrated narrowly on the inequalities between men and women and ignored
the social, cultural, legal and economic factors that give rise to those inequalities in
society.
1.5.2 Women and Development (WAD)

 The WID-approach sought to emphasize how a focus on women could

contribute to the implementation of dominant development strategies.
 The WID movement started to reflect on the type of development in which
women were "to be integrated".
 For example, its focus on poor women in the 1970s was complementary to
the dominant World Bank strategy of redistribution with growth.

 In the 1980s, the World Bank's structural adjustment strategy forced WID
proponents to switch to showing how returns on investments could be raised
and balance of payments improved through investing in women.

 WID policy approach has evolved from an earlier emphasis on women's role
as mothers to one that stresses the resource that women represent for
economic and social development, and the positive link between economic
participation and women's emancipation.
 Cont..
o Adopting a Marxist feminist approach, the main argument of WAD was
that women had always been part of the development processes.
o WAD asserts that women have always been important economic actors. The
work they do both inside and outside the household is critical to the
maintenance of society.
o The Women and Development (WAD) approach pointed out that women are
already integrated into the development process in an exploitative way.
o GAD also differs from WID because it looks at the work done by women at
home and investigates the family unit and then considers it to be invaluable
to a society that functions well.
Cont…

 The gathering at Nairobi provided women of the “Third World” as well

as the “First World” the chance to combine forces to fight against
injustice.
 The WAD approach provides a more critical view of women′s position than WID.
 It is assumed that women′s position will improve once international
structures become more equitable. However how these could change is
not clearly explained.
 According to this perspective, women were not a neglected resource
but overburdened and undervalued.
 Their substantial contribution to development needs to be recognized,
along with a redistribution of its benefits and burdens between men and
women.
 The WAD approach also demanded “affirmative action” by the State as
“Laissez Faire” in the market worsened already existing inequalities.
Cont…
3.Gender and development(GAD) approach
 It is more recent approach (since mid 80s), which

perceives the problem of women in terms of their

‘gender’. i.e. their social relationship with men in which
they have been systematically subordinated.
 It believes that focusing only on women is ignoring the real
problem i.e. their position to men.
 GAD focuses on analyzing the roles and responsibilities
that are socially assigned to women and men, the social
relations and interactions between women and men, the
opportunities offered to one and the other and seeks to
address issues of access and control over resources and
power
 Cont…
 GAD researchers and feminist social scientists have contributed in
important ways to the critique of (mal)deve1opment, to the
refinement and elaboration of concepts (especially those of
production, reproduction, division of labour, allocation of
resources, and gender bias), and to the integration of women's
concerns in development thinking, development policies, and
development cooperation.
 They have shown not only how economic policies have gender-
specific effects, but how gender itself shapes attitudes, policies,
and outcomes, at both macro and micro levels.
Cont…
 In contrast to WID and WAD, GAD development policy and
practice focuses on both the productive as well as the
reproductive aspects of women's and (men´s) contribution to work.
 the socially constructed basis of differences between men and
women and emphasises the need to challenge existing gender
roles and relations.
 GAD looks at the impact of development on both women and

men.
 And it seeks to ensure that both women and men participate

in and benefit equally from development and so emphasizes

equality of benefit and control.
 GAD starts with satisfaction of PGNs/ practical gender need,

yet at the same time it focuses on mobilization of community

which is needed to overcome structural inequalities.
Cont…
 The approach is not concerned with women pressure, but with
social construction.
 It seeks to understand the root cause of gender inequality.
 The approach is based on two strategies:
considering the interests of both men & women in general
programs and;
special support for women because women often begin from a
relatively disadvantaged position.
 It focuses more on the social, economic and political relations
between men and women and tries to address the inequities that
may exist in order to:
◦ transform these relations into more equitable ones, and
◦ improve their access to development opportunities
provided by projects.
 Cont…

WID GAD

The Seeks to integrate women into Seeks to empower and

approach development process transform unequal relation
b/n women and men.
The focus Women Relation b/n women and
men.
The Exclusion of women from development Unequal relation of power
problem process that prevent equitable
development and women’s
full participation.
The goal More effective and efficient Equitable sustainable
development development where women
and men sharing decision
making power.
The Implement women’s projects, Identify and address short-
strategies women’s complaints, integrated term needs determined by
projects women & men to improve
Increase women’s productivity & their condition
income Identify and address
Empower women’s ability to manage women’s and men’s long
their household. term interests.
1.6. Critical areas of concern/ intervention for
women in development worldwide
 Women are the primary caregivers of children and
elders in every country of the world.

 International studies demonstrate that when the

economy and political organization of a society change,
women take the lead in helping the family adjust to
new realities and challenges.
1.6.1 Global History of women′s movement
 The women’s suffrage movement was a decades-long fight to
win the right to vote for women in the United States.

 It took activists and reformers nearly 100 years to win that

right, and the campaign was not easy: Disagreements over
strategy threatened to cripple the movement more than once.

 But on August 18, 1920, the 19th Amendment to the

Constitution was finally ratified, enfranchising all American
women and declaring for the first time that they, like men,
deserve all the rights and responsibilities of citizenship.
1.6.2 National Context for Gender Issues

 The Women's Policy primarily aims to institutionalize

the political, economical, and social rights of women
by creating an appropriate structure in government
offices and institutions so that the public policies and
interventions are gender-sensitive and can ensure
equitable development for all Ethiopian men and
women.
1.6.3 Gender related problems in Ethiopia
 What are the main challenges of gender equality?
 With the prevalence of gender discrimination, and social norms and
practices, girls become exposed to;
- the possibility of child marriage,
- teenage pregnancy,
- child domestic work,
- poor education and health,
- sexual abuse,
- Exploitation and violence.
 CHAPTER-Two
GENDER IN RURAL DEVELOPMENT
2.1. The need to work with both men & women farmers
 Women are of course an integral part of farming
households.
 They produce over half the food in many developing

countries, bear most responsibilities for household food

security and contribute to household well-being.
 Literature shows that women are involved in agriculture

& rural development representing more than ½ of the

labor required to produce food consumed in developing
countries.
 Women usually have more limited access to resources

and opportunities and their productivity remains low

relative to their potential.
 Cont…
 In the case of Ethiopia, both men and women tend to work
together on the ‘family farm’.

 Hence, distinction (dissimilarity) in training delivery and

information by extension planners restricts the skill development
of a substantial proportion of the agricultural labor force.

 Observations indicate that a female farmer is commonly perceived

as a co-farmer and as marginal players in agricultural development
Cont…
 Often, it is observed that major emphasis in agriculture
is given to men’s activities while the roles of women and
children in the Ethiopian farming systems have been
ignored.
 So far, the extension system in Ethiopia is unable to

address the cultural taboo against the participation of

female farmers in plowing and sowing.
 This kind of approaching women is critically influencing

production and productivity of Ethiopian agriculture.

2.2. Barriers to women’s involvement in extension
Delivery systems staffed by males;
Extension methods that often prevent women e.g.
Contact farmer method, requiring resources with women
have limited access.
Segregated/separated pattern of training topics e.g.
agricultural information for men & home economics for
women
 Major types barriers to women’s involvement in
extension
1. Resource based barrier
 Women farmers have most of the time, low resource base, thus are

not sought by extension services.

 Lack of technology, lack of access to credit, low literacy, and small

size of land (small holders) are some constraints related to

resource.
2. Education based barrier
 It is true that better educated farmers are more likely to adopt new

technologies and to have access to extension services.

 It is again true that the gap between women & men’s literacy rates

is high in rural areas.

 This gap, therefore, has implication for women farmers’ adoption

of new technology
Cont…
3. Time related barrier
 It is clear that women are more involved than men in routine, time-

consuming activities; therefore, time availability is more of a

constraint for them.
 They have less total time available than men to participate in

extension activities.
4. Mobility related barrier
 Women’s freedom to move inside and outside the community is

restricted in some society due to their reproductive roles, social or

religious reasons, less cash to pay for transport, fewer means of
transportation available.
-This also has a noticeable impact on women’s involvement in extension
activities.
 2.3. Difficulties faced by extension workers in reaching women
farmers
 Improved technologies may focus on maximum productivity but
ignoring other aspects that might be important to women.
 Lack of flexibility in adoption of technologies. The “all or
nothing” approach e.g. packages of inputs & technologies
delivered in a full bases, prevents women from adopting
technologies on a step by step basis due to the limited resource
capacity of women.
 Sometimes, the technology being promoted can be unsuitable for
women because it could be heavy or difficult to understand.
 Most packages introducing technological improvement require
credit. However, credit is less accessible from adopting the
package.
 New technologies usually show little effort into promoting labor-
saving technologies for the time consuming tasks in which
women are engaged.
 To overcome such barriers ;
a. developing appropriate extension package for women

 One of the reasons why extension services have had limited success
with women is that the:
extension packages aimed at improvement of rural area are often
not suitable for rural women.
extension packages have traditionally been developed
considering men farmers as the main target.
 The growing recognition of the women’s role in agriculture and

rural development has recently led to include women in existing

extension activities, without proper consideration of how the
packages may do; that needs revision.
What can be done to improve the problems regarding
extension packages?
Ensure flexibility to allow women to adopt inputs and practices
on a step by step basis.

Post harvest and marketing operations.

Time consuming tasks of women can be reduced through use

of simple, low cost labour- saving technologies.
e.g. improved stoves to use less fuel, smoke-less stoves
to save fuel and improve health, irrigation technology to
save time spent on water fetching, grinding mills and so on.
 b. Contacting rural women: Working with Rural Women in Practice

 There are often social or cultural constraints that prevent or

inhibit male extension workers from contacting and working
with women.
Who should contact women?
 Female agents: It has often been noted that women extension

workers can be more effective in communication with women

farmers . However, the number of female extension workers is
still very limited in most extension services.
 Male agents: Commitments, being ready to help women,

finding the best ways to communicate them and providing for

specific needs of women are the important points to note.
 Contact farmers: Some female farmers could be selected as

contact farmers and act as an effective link with other women

farmers
 c. communication methods should we use to
enable women
 Using visual aids and traditional media: Visual aids are
generally effective than printed materials, since women in
particular have low literacy levels. Drawings, photos, object and so
on all reinforce discussions and learning.
 Using demonstrations, field days, and tours: Demonstrations

should take place at times when women can attend.

Demonstrations and field days should take place in locations easily
accessible to women.
 Using group discussions: Group discussions stimulate the

participation of farmers in actively talking and thinking about

their problems and solutions
d. Mobilizing women groups for self-help development
 One of the most successful ways of working with rural
women is through groups.
 Be aware that, because men generally dominate such

groups, they do not always provide the best learning

environments for teaching leadership skills to women.
 It might, therefore, be important to form an all female

group
 Women feel free to speak in groups of women than they

do when men are present

 Cont…
 Many communities have a long tradition of women

groups which include:

 mutual help groups,
 saving and credit clubs,
 labor exchange groups or those set-ups for security
purposes.
 Though existing groups are the first choice, there might

be a need to establish new ones, since it is often the more

literate and better off who are members and poor women
participation tends to be low.
2.4.Policy Related issues for Rural Women
 Policy environments enable rural women's empowerment when
they address the gender disparities and discrimination that exist
across different sectors, including agriculture, rural
development, forestry, fisheries, trade, finance, education, health
and environment.
 As such, policies that are complementary and coherent are
essential to rural women fully enjoying their rights, and
participating and leading in economic, social and political
matters.
 Female role in agricultural production is dominant in African
because the continent is sparsely populated and the agricultural
technology is based on
 simple hand tools that are hoes, sickle, axe and iron tipped digging
stick
Cont…
 Both men and women have been playing a significant
role in the development of agricultural production.

 The role and the contribution of both male and

female, in the agricultural activities, is not necessarily
the same in all parts of the country.
 Chapter Three
Rural Youth in Agricultural/ Rural Development
3.1.Introduction
Who are the rural youth?
 Age as gender is a way of grouping the rural people.
 Different countries have different age categories for the

same terminology (youth).

 In the case of Ethiopia it is 15-30, while the UN defines it

as individuals from 15-24 years of age.

 It is estimated that about 20% of the world’s population,

which is about more than 1 billion, falls in the youth

category (by UN definition)
Cont…
 About 70% of 1 billion live in rural areas and the
majorities are victims of rural poverty.
 In the case of Ethiopia, from the total projected

population of 60,000,000 (in 1997) more than 13,000,000

are rural youth.
 Considering labor force in LDC
 But majority migrate to urban seeking job.
 The youngsters of today are the farm investors and

families of the future; it’s, therefore, important that due

attention is given to these group.
 It is important that extension intensifies its efforts of

advocacy on behalf of rural youth to strengthen youth

programs.
3.2. Common problems faced by rural youth world-wide

 They are faced with landlessness /diminishing farm size/

 unemployment
 Lack of motivation
 Lack of training
 Lack of involvement and opportunities
 Usage of drugs, and alcohol and susceptible to disease
including HIV/AIDS, such practices affect their health.
 Lack of any coherent youth policy and implementation(now
being improved)
3.3. Rural Youth in Extension
 A large percentage of the population of many countries is

under 18 years of age and the majority of the overall

population lives in rural areas.
 Extension agents should make a special effort to interest of

young people in their extension work.

 They should visit schools to talk about extension and

should arrange visits of farm projects for young people to

see what is going on.
 The Rural youth can play a significant role in agricultural

extension,
 if they are properly handled;
 can act as a dynamic force in communities because they
generally have a positive attitude to change.
 What could be done through youths?
 Raising demonstration plots and showing to others
 Keeping themselves aware with latest agricultural

technologies and adopt all improved agricultural

technologies.
 Educating other farmers
 Acting as link between extension workers and farmers
3.4. Attempts Made to Organize the Rural Youth in Ethiopia
 Agricultural Extension Service:
◦ Extension activities in Ethiopia began in 1954, where 2 young
graduates of Ambo were selected as extension agents.
◦ The extension work was expanded through the formation of an
agricultural youth club. As first members of the club, 33 boys
participated in poultry breeding & 38 in gardening.
 Teachers Training School:
◦ In 1954, an agricultural education class was established to teach
modern agriculture at the teachers training school in Harar.
 School Clubs:
◦ Local school officials played important roles in establishing clubs
in schools, and schools were made to compete by holding annual
shows and demonstrations.
◦ Major clubs are poultry & gardening.
◦ Expected benefits are learning by doing, income generation, report
preparation, etc.
Cont…
 REYA (Revolutionary Ethiopian Youth
Association) :
◦ It was formed at a national congress held in 1980.
◦ It had strong ideological content and it received political,
ideological and organizational leadership from the party.
 Membership was voluntary (Ages 14-30) and at inception in
1980, it had 3 million members of which this 86 % was in rural
areas.
 Various activities of REYA were:
 Literacy campaign
 Social service
 Direct agricultural work
 Recreational activities
 Military activities
Cont…

 Investing in youth:
 Will yield long-standing returns for national and
global development.
 Is an investment in human capital.
 Will prevent many future problems such as school
drop-outs, childish delinquency /law breaking and
etc.
 CHAPTER FOUR
WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
4.1. Concept of Empowerment
 Women are an integral part of every economy
 However, in most developing countries, women have a low

socio- economic status.

 Although women constitute half of world’s population yet

they are the largest group which is excluded from the

benefits of social and economic development.
 Still they have less authority in all issues.
 Generally, there is discrimination between men and women.
 The issue of gender inequality can be considered as a

universal feature of developing countries.

 Cont…
 Despite efforts made towards economic empowerment of
women, majority of the active female population continue to be
confined to micro, small scale enterprises and the informal
sector.
 Economic and cultural factors, coupled with institutional factors

dictate the gender-based division of labour, rights,

responsibilities, opportunities, access to and control over
resources.
 Hence, empowering women is critically important and

underpinning issues in all development concerns.

 Empowerment is the process of enabling or authorizing an

individual to think, behave, take action and central work in an

autonomous(has independent in gov’t) way.
 Cont…
 It can be viewed as means of creating a social environment in
which one can make decisions and choices either individually
or collectively for social transformation.

 Empowerment also includes encouraging, and developing

the skills for self-sufficiency with a focus on eliminating the
future need for charity or welfare in the individuals of the
group.

 It also deals with increasing the spiritual, political, social or

economic strength of individuals and communities.
 Cont…
 Empowerment, therefore, is probably the totality of the
following or similar capabilities:
Having decision-making power of their own
Having access to information and resources for taking proper
decision
Having a range of options from which you can make choices (not
just yes/no, either/or.)
Ability to exercise forcefulness in collective decision making
Having positive thinking on the ability to make change
Ability to learn skills for improving one's personal or group power.
Ability to change others’ perceptions by democratic means
Involving in the growth process and changes that is never ending and
self-initiated
Increasing one's positive self-image and overcoming stigma
Cont…
 The empowered women:
 become agents of their own development,
 able to exercise choices to set their own agenda and
 be strong enough to challenge their subordinate
position in the society.
 4.2. Economic Empowerment
 “Women perform 66 percent of the world’s work, and produce
50 percent of the food, yet earn only 10 percent of the
income and own 1 percent of the property”.
 “Whether the issue is improving education in the developing

world, or fighting global climate change, or addressing nearly

any other challenge we face, empowering women is a critical
part of the equation ”Bill Clinton, 2009"
Economic empowerment is the capacity of women and men to
participate in, contribute to and benefit from growth processes
in ways which recognize the value of their contributions, respect
their dignity and make it possible to negotiate a fairer
distribution of the benefits of growth (Eyben et al., 2008).
 Cont…
 Itincreases women’s access to economic resources and
opportunities including jobs, financial services, property
and other productive assets, skills development and market
information.
 Most women across the globe rely on the
informal work sector for an income.
 Women must have more equitable access to assets and

services; infrastructure,….etc
 Programmes should be designed to benefit the poor, both

men and women, and employment opportunities must be

improved while increasing recognition of women’s vast
unpaid work.
 Cont…
 Gender equality and empowered women are catalysts for

multiplying development efforts.

 Relatively, women usually invest a higher proportion of

their earnings in their families and communities than men.

 Hence, women’s economic empowerment benefits the

individual, the family, the community, and the country.

 Developing a strategy, forming a coalition(union), or

conducting advocacy(support) is some ways that individual

women can have a positive impact on the economic
empowerment of other women in their country or around
the world.
 4.3. Social Empowerment
 Social empowerment is understood as the process of developing a
sense of autonomy and self-confidence, and acting individually and
collectively to change social relationships and the institutions and
discourses that exclude women and keep them in subordination.
 Status of woman in the society should be equal to man by
eliminating injustice and inequity.
 Women should have respectable value in the society
 SE is about changing society (e.g. gender norms) so that women’s
place within it is respected and recognized on the terms on which
they want to live, not on terms dictated by others.
 Cont…
 A sense of autonomy and self-value is important for someone to
preserve her bodily integrity, participate in politics, demand a fair
return on her work, and take full advantage of public services, such
as health and education.
 Accordingly, social empowerment is generated by removing

social, political, legal and economic hurdles to get individual

influence.
 Poor people’s empowerment is strongly influenced by their

individual assets (such as land, housing, livestock, savings) and

capabilities of all types: human (such as good health and
education), social (such as social belonging, a sense of identity,
leadership relations) and psychological (self-esteem, self-
confidence, the ability to imagine and aspire to a better future).
 Also important are people’s collective assets and capabilities, such

as voice, organisation, representation and identity.

Women empowerment principles
Establish high-level corporate leadership for gender equality.
Treat all women and men fairly at work respect and support
human rights and nondiscrimination.
Ensure the health, safety and well being of all women and men
workers.
Promote education, training and professional development for
women.
Implement enterprise development, supply chain and marketing
practices that empower women.
Promote equality through community initiatives and advocacy.
Measure and publicly report on progress to achieve gender
equality
 4.4. Gender mainstreaming
4.4.1.Concept and Definition
Gender mainstreaming, as a new concept, appeared for the first
time in international texts after the United Nations Third World
Conference on Women (Nairobi, 1985)
 Gender mainstreaming is the (re)organisation, improvement,

development and evaluation of policy processes, so that a

gender equality perspective is incorporated in all policies at all
levels and at all stages, by the actors normally involved in policy-
making.

 Means of promoting the role of women in the field of development

and of integrating women’s values into development work.

 Gender Mainstreaming is not a goal in itself but a strategy to

achieve equality between women and men.
 Cont…
 Mainstreaming includes gender-specific activities and affirmative
action, whenever women or men are in a particularly
disadvantageous position.

 Gender-specific interventions can target women exclusively, men

and women together, or only men, to enable them to participate in
and benefit equally from development efforts.

 These are necessary temporary measures designed to combat the

direct and indirect consequences of past discrimination.
Cont…
 Mainstreaming is not about adding a "woman's
component" or even a "gender equality component" into
an existing activity.
 It demand identifying the need for changes in that agenda.
 It may require changes in goals, strategies, and actions so
that both women and men can influence, participate in,
and benefit from development processes.
 Cont…
 The goal of mainstreaming gender equality is thus the
transformation of unequal social and institutional structures
into equal and just structures for both men and women.

 It goes beyond increasing women's participation; it means

bringing the experience, knowledge, and interests of women
and men to bear on the development agenda.

 Gender mainstreaming entails bringing the perceptions,

experience, knowledge and interests of women as well as
men to allow on policy-making, planning and decision-
making.
4.4.2.Basic Principle of Mainstreaming
1. Participation of the People
2. Human Dignity
3. Equity
4. Social Justice
5. Inclusiveness
6. Equality
7. Human Rights
8. Non-discrimination
9. Protection of the Marginalized.
 CHAPTER FIVE
GENDER ANALYSIS FRAMEWORKS/TOOLS
Gender analysis (GA) is a process to assess the differential impact of proposed or
existing policies, programmes, projects and legislation on women and men.
 a type of socio-economic analysis that uncovers how gender
relations affect a development problem
 method to understand the relationships between men and women ,
their access to resources ,their activities and the constraints they
face relative to each other
 is an intrinsic/ essential dimension of policy analysis that identifies
specifically how public policy affects women and men differently
 During program and project design, it assesses the impact that a development

activity may have on females and males and on gender relations.

 It can be used:-

 to ensure that men and women are not disadvantaged by development activities,
 to enhance the sustainability and effectiveness of activities,
 to identify priority areas for action to promote equality between women and
men.
Cont…

 During implementation, monitoring and evaluation, GA assists

to assess differences in participation, benefits and impacts
between males and females, including progress towards gender
equality and changes in gender relations.

 Gender analysis can also be used:

to assess and build capacity and commitment to gender sensitive
planning and programming in donor and partner organizations;
to identify gender equality issues and strategies at country, sectoral or
thematic programming level.
5.1. Caroline Moser′s Gender Analysis Framework (gender
planning)
 It was developed by Caroline Moser.
 It is based on her concepts of gender roles and gender needs, and
policy approaches to gender and development planning.

 The goal is to free women from subordination and allow them to

achieve equality, equity, and empowerment.

 The Moser framework follows the Gender and Development

approach(GAD) in emphasizing the importance of gender
relations
5.2. Sara Longwe′s WOMEN′S EQUALITY and
Empowerment Framework
 Equality and Empowerment (Longwe) Framework (also
known as Women and Empowerment)
 The core of Longwe's work is the five levels of equality
and empowerment.
 These five levels are;
 welfare,
 access,
 conscientization,
 participation and
 control.
5.3. Social relation approach(SRA) Framework

 The Social Relations Approach states that all institutions

possess five distinct, but inter-related, dimensions of social
relationships:
 rules,
 resources,
 people,
 activities, and
 power
 These dimensions are significant to the analysis of social
inequality
in general, and
gender inequality in particular.
Social Relations Framework
 The social relations framework originated with academics led by
Naila Kabeer at the Institute of Development Studies at Sussex,
UK.
 The Social Relations Framework assesses how gender
discriminations and inequalities are created, maintained and
reproduced in institutions (i.e., the household, community, market
and states) as well as aims to involve women in their own
development solutions.

 In this way, it is a political rather than a technical or informational

solution.
 Social relations shape the roles, resources, rights, and
responsibilities that people access and claim.
Cont…
 The aim is to assess how inequalities are reproduced in
institutions through social relations and to understand the cross-
cutting nature of inequalities within and across institutions for
project development and planning purposes
 The framework is based on the idea that the aim of development
is human well-being, which consists of survival, security and
autonomy.
 Poverty is seen to arise out of unequal social relations, which
result in unequal distribution of resources, claims and
responsibilities.
 Gender relations are one such type of social relations. Social
relations are not fixed or immutable.
 They can and do change through factors such as macro changes or
human agency.
Cont…
 Institutions ensure the production, reinforcement and reproduction
of social relations, and, thereby, social difference and inequality.
 Institutions are defined as distinct frameworks of rules for doing

things and organisations as the specific structural forms that

institutions take.
 Gender inequality is reproduced, not just in the household, but

through a range of institutions, including the international

community, the state and the market.
 Gender analysis therefore lead to looking at how institutions

create and reproduce inequalities.

 There are four key institutional sites:
 the state,
 the market,
 the community and
 family/kinship.
cont…
5.5. FAO Gender Analytical framework.
 The gender analysis framework draws on experience from
 the farming systems approach,
 rapid rural appraisal (RRA) and
 PRA. In particular, three of the projects adapted methodology described in FAO,
1995c.
 The analytical framework employed in the Ethiopian project is
very similar, having adapted that used in the 1992 FAO gender
analysis workshop.
 The gender analysis framework is an analytical planning tool to
help extension workers understand the communities that they are
working with and identify, with those communities, the support
they can provide.
 The main focus of the tool is the analysis of difference and, in
particular, gender differences.
5.6. Harvard Analytical Framework
 The Harvard Analytical Framework (Gender Roles Framework)
 The Harvard Analytical Framework, also called the Gender Roles

Framework, is one of the earliest frameworks for understanding differences

between men and women in their participation in the economy.
 The Harvard Analytical Framework is used to collect information from the

community and from households. It describes who does each activity, who has
access and control of resources and the influences on gender roles.
 It is used to collect information from the community and households/micro-

level/
 It describes:-

 who does each activity,

 who has access and control of resources and;
 the influences on gender roles
Aims of the Framework
 The framework aims to help planners design more efficient projects and

improve overall productivity.

 It does this by mapping the work and resources of men and women in a

community and highlighting the main differences.

Cont…
 The Harvard Analytical Framework has four main components:
1. The Activity Profile answers the question "Who does what?"
for all relevant productive, reproductive and community
management tasks.

2. The Access and Control Profile identifies the resources used in

the tasks identified in the activity profile, and defines who has
access to these resources and who controls their use.
◦ It also identifies the benefits that are realized from each
activity, and who has access to and control over these benefits.
Cont…
3. The Influencing factors section identifies factors that cause
the differences of roles of each gender identified in the two
profiles.
◦ These factors must also be considered because they present
opportunities and constraints to increasing the involvement of
women in development projects and programmes.
 These factors are extensive, broad, and interrelated.
 They include:

-community norms and social hierarchies, such as family/

community forms, cultural practices, and religious beliefs;
-demographic conditions;
-institutional structures, including the nature of government
-bureaucracies, and arrangements for the generation and
dissemination of knowledge, skills, and technology;
Cont…
-general economic conditions, such as poverty levels, inflation
rates, income distribution, international terms of trade, and
infrastructure;
-internal and external political events;
-legal parameters;
-training and education;
-attitude of community to development/assistance workers

4. The project cycle analysis which examines a project or

intervention in light of gender disaggregated information.
 The Harvared framework provides six tools

◦ Tool 1 identifies gender roles: what women, men, boys

and girls do in various productive, reproductive and
community-managing activities.
◦ Tool 2 identifies the practical and strategic needs of
women.
◦ Tool 3 defines an access and control profile for resources
and benefits of economic activity.
◦ Tool 4 examines the impact that a new policy, project or
program will have on the three roles.
◦ Tool 5 looks at how welfare, equity, anti-poverty,
efficiency or empowerment approaches will address
practical or strategic needs. The approaches are not
mutually exclusive.
◦ The final Tool 6 looks at way women and gender-aware
organizations and individuals can be involved in the
process
 5.7 Women’s Empowerment Framework
 The Women's Empowerment Framework, or Longwe
Framework, was developed by Sara Hlupekile Longwe, a
consultant in Zambia .
 Longwe argues that poverty arises not from lack of
productivity but from oppression and exploitation.
 Hence, empowering is necessary
 This framework questions
 what women’s equality and empowerment means in practice and;
 to what extent a development intervention supports
empowerment
 Women’s empowerment is defined as “enabling women to
take an equal place with men, and to participate equally with
men in the development processes in order to achieve control
over the factors of production on an equal basis with men.”
Cont…
 The framework helps planners to evaluate whether a
development initiative supports this empowerment.
 The basic argument is that women's development can be
viewed in terms of five levels of equality: welfare, access,
conscientization, participation and control
 Welfare addresses basic needs,
 access addresses ability to use resources such as credit, land
and education,
 Conscientization is a key element of the framework:
recognition that discrimination creates gender-related problems
and women may themselves contribute to this discrimination,
 Participation women are equal to men in making decisions,
and
 Control the balance of powers between the genders is equal.
Cont…
 In addition, the women’s empowerment framework identifies
three levels of recognition of women’s issues in project
design:
Negative level: where project objectives are silent about
women’s issues.
Neutral level: where the project objectives recognize
women’s issues but concern remains neutral or
conservative, merely ensuring that women are not left
worse off than before
Positive level: where project objectives are positively
concerned with women’s issues and with improving the
position of women relative to men
Chapter 6: Leadership for Development

6.1. Introduction
6.2 Qualifications for lay leaders
6.3 Methods of selecting lay leaders
6.4 Opinion Leadership
6.5 Theories of leadership
6.6 Style of leadership
Introduction
 What is leadership?
 Leadership is the action of leading a group
 Within an organisation, management and leadership can be used
interchangeably

 It is the role of management to make the necessary decisions to

lead the organisation towards a goal
 Leadership is important in an organisation because it gives the
organisation direction

 It is important for extension managers to understand leadership

so that they know how their decisions can influence moving their
organisation, and its beneficiaries, forward.
 Leadership types

Theseic bas types of leaders are :

1. Autocratic leaders
2. Democratic leaders
3. Laissez-faire leaders
4. Bureaucratic leaders
 Autocratic: Being dictatorial or domineering
 Democratic: Being open to the ideas of others
 Laissez-faire: Being non-interventionist or lax
Autocratic Leadership Style:-
o Makes decisions without consulting their team
o The classical approach
o Manager retains as much power and decision making authority as
possible
o Does not consult staff, nor allowed to give any input
o Staff expected to obey orders without receiving any explanations
o Structured set of rewards and punishments
Democratic Leadership Style

o A democratic leader encourages their team to give input in

the decision making process
o Also known as participative style
o Encourages staff to be a part of the decision making
o Keeps staff informed about everything that affects their work
and shares decision making and problem solving
responsibilities
 The leader
 A coach who has the final say, but gathers
information from staff before making a decision
 Produce high quality and high quantity work for long

periods of time
 Staff like the trust they receive and respond with

cooperation, team spirit, and high morale

The democratic leader

 Develops plans to help staff evaluate their own

performance
 Allows staff to establish goals
 Encourages staff to grow on the job and be promoted
 Recognizes and encourages achievement
Laissez-Faire Leadership Style

 Also known as the “hands-off¨ style

 The manager provides little or no direction and gives

staff as much freedom as possible

 All authority or power given to the staff and they

determine goals, make decisions, and resolve

problems on their own
Cont…
 A laissez-faire or non-interventionist leader will not interfere
 They will let the team make most of the decisions

 This leadership style is appropriate when the team is highly

motivated and able to get things done without much
supervision

 A leader’s behavior can impact their performance

 The best leader is one who can use the correct leadership style
in different situations
Bureaucratic Leadership Style
 Manages “by the book¨
 Everything done according to procedure or policy
 If not covered by the book, referred to the next level above
 A police officer not a leader but enforces the rules

 Motivation is the will or desire to achieve a goal

 It is one of the most important concerns within extension
organization

 How you motivate your team as a manager will determine how well
and how quickly the given tasks are completed
 What is motivation?
 Qualifications for lay leader
o Must have a good reputation/status,
o Faithful in marriage
o Must be self-controlled
o Sensible, well-behaved
o Friendly to strangers
o Able to teach
o Must not be heavy drinkers
o Not troublemakers
o Must be kind and gentle
Methods of selecting lay leaders
Here are two ways to assess leaders’ fit.
 Get to know them better.

-Psychological and behavioral assessments that are

typically offered via assessment center exercises have been
statistically linked to current and future success in leadership
roles.

-Understand the culture better. Ask your board,

employees, vendor/seller, consultants, and others with
connections to the organization for insight into what makes an
effective leader in the company
 LEADERSHIP
Gender responsive leadership
1. What is leadership?
 Leadership is about influencing and directing people towards

accomplishing tasks or to achieve a desired goal

 It is a facilitative process that involves the shaping of the

behavior, attitude, beliefs and values of people to help the
leader in carrying out tasks

 The person who influences and directs the people is called a

leader
2. Elements of leadership
 A leader leads others towards achieving a goal

 There must be a specific task to be carried out

 There must be followers, members or a team who are being

influenced

 The leader must have some authority and power to be able to

influence the followers towards accomplishment of tasks or
achieving a goal
3. Roles of a leader

An effective leader has the following responsibilities:-

 Guiding the team to develop a vision, setting objectives and

tasks to be carried out

 Guide the team in coming up with a clear mission

 Guide the team in planning and setting of objectives and

targets
 Guide the team in organizing the work and work scheduling

 Co-ordinate and motivate the team

 Guide the team in monitoring, control and taking of any

remedial action
 Evaluate performance and give feedback
4. Characteristics of a gender responsive leadership
 A leadership can be gender responsive if there is change of
attitude towards incorporating gender concerns in policies, the
planning process, development of programmes and
development of organizational culture
Steps for Leadership development checklist
1. Determine the best leadership style for your organization
2. Identify current and potential leaders within the company
3. Identify leadership gaps
4. Develop succession plans for critical roles
5. Develop career planning goals for potential leaders
6. Develop a skills roadmap for future leaders
7. Develop retention/maintenance programs for current and
future leaders
Varying Leadership Style
 Three factors that influence which leadership style to use.

1. The manager’s personal background: What personality,

knowledge, values, ethics, and experiences does the manager have
 What does he or she think will work?

2. Staff being supervised: Staff individuals with different

personalities and backgrounds; The leadership style used will vary
depending upon the individual staff and what he or she will respond
best to

3. The organization: The traditions, values, philosophy, and concerns

of the organization influence how a manager acts
cont…

 Should leaders be more task or relationship (people)

oriented
 Leaders have a dominant style, one they use in a wide
variety of situations
 No one best style - leaders must adjust their leadership
style to the situation as well as to the people being led
 Many different aspects to being a great leader - a role
requiring one to play many different leadership styles to
be successful
Fundamental differences between the role of a manager and a
leader

Managerial functions Leadership skills

 Create vision and excitement
 Plan and budget  Set a direction and motivate
and inspire people to follow
 Coordinate, control, and execute
activities
 Align people
 Organize and staff
 Work within existing structure  Build new relationships and
structures
.
Other Leadership Styles

 Transformational Leadership:-
 Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human

and organizational capabilities;

 Facilitate multiple levels of transformation; and
 Align them with core values and a unified purpose
 To respond to a dynamic environment
 The Transformational
Leadership
 Make change happen in:
 Self,
 Others,
 Groups, and
 Organizations
 Charisma a special leadership style commonly
associated with transformational leadership; extremely
powerful, extremely hard to teach
 Transactional Leadership

 Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of

the status quo
 In opposition to transformational leadership
 “By the book" approach - the person works within the

rules
 Commonly seen in large, bureaucratic organizations
Purposeful Leadership
 Leader and the community share a common purpose to
develop or provide the drive, authority and
commitment to undertake projects
The End