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Bryman6ce Lectureppt ch01

Research Methodology

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92 views30 pages

Bryman6ce Lectureppt ch01

Research Methodology

Uploaded by

Viktor Pirmana
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Social Research Methods, Sixth Canadian Edition

Edward Bell, Alan Bryman, and Steven Kleinknecht

© 2022 Oxford University Press


Chapter 1: General Research Orientations

• Theory and research


• Deductive and inductive approaches
• Epistemological considerations
• Ontological considerations
• General orientations: Quantitative and qualitative research
• Influences on the conduct of social research

© 2022 Oxford University Press


Learning Objectives

1. Explain the relationship between theory in the broad sense and data
gathering; in particular, you should be able to recognize that the purpose
of collecting data may be to test theories or to create theories.
2. Discuss the positivist, interpretivist, and critical approaches to social
science, including their key assumptions regarding the purposes of social
research and how it should be conducted.
3. Describe the distinctions between qualitative and quantitative research.
4. Identify how different factors, including values, politics, and issues
related to the research question(s) may influence social research.

© 2022 Oxford University Press


Theory and Research 1 of 3

• What is theory?
– An explanation of observed regularities or patterns
• Common components of a theory
– Definitions: What are the key terms?
– Descriptions: What are the characteristics?
– Relational statements: How are variables related?
• Deterministic
• Probabilistic

© 2022 Oxford University Press


Theory and Research 2 of 3

• Middle range theories


– Limited in scope
– Testable
– e.g., Merton’s theory of anomie
• Grand theories
– General and abstract
– Provide ways to look at the world
– e.g., structural functionalism

© 2022 Oxford University Press


Theory and Research 3 of 3

• What is the relationship between theory and research?


– Theory can guide research
– Research can test theory

© 2022 Oxford University Press


Deductive and Inductive Approaches 1 of 2

• Deductive method
– The most common approach to social research
– Begins with theory
– Understand specific phenomenon through background research
– Develop hypotheses
– Test with empirical data
– Revise if necessary

© 2022 Oxford University Press


FIGURE 1.1 The process of deduction

© 2022 Oxford University Press


Deductive and Inductive Approaches 2 of 2

• Inductive method
– Theories and interpretations are the outcome of theory
– Gather and examine data first
– Then create theory from the observations
• Grounded theory
– Deriving theory from observations
– Used by qualitative researchers

© 2022 Oxford University Press


FIGURE 1.2 Deductive and inductive approaches to the relationship between theory and research

© 2022 Oxford University Press


Epistemological Considerations

• Epistemology
– How do we know the world?
– How does knowledge become acquired?
• Three broad positions on knowing the world:
– Positivism
– Interpretivism
– Critical approaches

© 2022 Oxford University Press


Positivism

• Positivism follows the natural sciences


• Uses the principal of empiricism (use of the senses for
knowledge)
• Generate hypotheses to test (uses deduction)
• Can provide foundation for induction, too
• Science is value-free
– Formerly “objectivity”
– Currently intersubjectivity
• Scientific statements are of key importance
© 2022 Oxford University Press
Interpretivism 1 of 2

• Interpretivism is a critique of positivism


• Goal is to grasp the subjective meaning of people’s lives
• People interpret the reality of their own lives (social
construction of reality)
• Views the social world from the point of view of the social
actor
– Empathetic understanding
– Interpretation of existence

© 2022 Oxford University Press


Interpretivism 2 of 2

• Symbolic interactionism: major perspective in sociology that


uses interpretivism
– e.g., George Herbert Mead, Irving Goffman

© 2022 Oxford University Press


Critical Approaches to Social Science

• Critical theories are critiques of positivism, too


• Critical researchers use many kinds of research methods
– Both deductive and inductive approaches
– Reject “value-free” science
• Anti-oppressive in practice and political in nature
– e.g., Karl Marx and conflict theory
• Involves praxis: putting one’s theoretical positions into practice

© 2022 Oxford University Press


Ontological Considerations 1 of 2

• Two ontological debates:


1. Objectivist perspective:
• Social phenomena have an objective reality, independent of our perceptions
2. Constructionist perspective:
• Constructionist (hard)
– Reality is merely a set of mental constructions.
– e.g., Nietzsche: there are no facts, only interpretations
• Constructionist (soft): more middle ground
– There is an objective social reality that is marred by human interpretation

© 2022 Oxford University Press


Ontological Considerations 2 of 2

• Relationship to social research


– Ontological assumptions about reality affect:
• Research question formulation
• The way research is carried out

© 2022 Oxford University Press


General Orientations: Quantitative and Qualitative
Research 1 of 2

• Quantitative research
– Uses numbers and statistics in the collection and analysis of data
• Qualitative research
– Uses mainly words and other non-numeric symbols in the collection
and analysis of data

© 2022 Oxford University Press


General Orientations: Quantitative and Qualitative
Research 2 of 2

• Are these differences irreconcilable?


• Does real-life research cluster neatly into these two camps?

© 2022 Oxford University Press


FIGURE 1.3 Influences on social research

© 2022 Oxford University Press


Influences on the Conduct of Social Research: Values 1 of 3

• A researcher’s values can contribute to bias in research:


– Choice of topic
– Formulation of the research question
– Choice of method
– Formulation of research design and data collection methods
– Actual data collection
– Analysis of data
– Interpretation of data
– Conclusions

© 2022 Oxford University Press


Influences on the Conduct of Social Research: Values 2 of 3

• Reflexivity
– Researchers’ awareness that their values and decisions have an
impact on the research
– Personal biases are made explicit

© 2022 Oxford University Press


Influences on the Conduct of Social Research: Values 3 of 3

• Three different positions on values in social research:


1. Research should be value-free
2. Research cannot be value-free, but researchers should be open and
explicit about their values
3. Researchers should use their values to direct and interpret their
investigations: value commitment is a good thing for researchers to
have

© 2022 Oxford University Press


Politics in Social Research 1 of 2

• Researchers sometimes “take sides”


• Funding:
– Who gets it? Are strings attached?
– Government may fund research to benefit them politically

© 2022 Oxford University Press


Politics in Social Research 2 of 2

• Research subjects/participants
– Gatekeepers
– Who gets access? Are strings attached?
• Research findings
– What sorts of findings are “acceptable” to those who fund or publish
research?

© 2022 Oxford University Press


Issues Related to the Research Question

• When little or no research has been done:


– A qualitative, exploratory approach may be preferable
• Typically associated with the generation of theory rather than theory testing
• Relatively unstructured approach to the research process
• When a researcher wants to study individuals involved in illicit
activities:
– Need to develop rapport with subjects
• Qualitative strategy

© 2022 Oxford University Press


Formulating a Research Question 1 of 4

• The choice of research orientation, design, and method must


match the question being asked
– Is it a brand-new phenomenon?
– Measuring impact?
– World views?
– Hypothesis testing?

© 2022 Oxford University Press


Formulating a Research Question 2 of 4

• The choice of research method should match the research


question
– A research question states the purpose of the study in the form of a
question
– For example:
• What social factors make people enjoy smoking marijuana?
• What explains differential rates of suicide in societies?
• What is it like to be a member of the furry fandom?

© 2022 Oxford University Press


Formulating a Research Question 3 of 4

• The form of the research question will be shaped by the


qualitative or quantitative orientations of the study
– Qualitative:
• Less specific research question
• Inductive
• No hypothesis
– Quantitative:
• Can test causal models
• Deductive
• Narrowed research question to make a testable hypothesis

© 2022 Oxford University Press


Formulating a Research Question 4 of 4

• Research questions should


– be clear
– be researchable
– relate to established theory and research
– be linked or closely related to each other
– allow the researcher to make a contribution to existing knowledge
– be neither too broad nor too narrow

© 2022 Oxford University Press

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