Indexing and Arrays

 Index mode – the effective address of the operand is generated by

adding a constant value to the contents of a register.
 Index mode is represented as X(Ri)
 EA = X + [Ri]
 The constant X may be given either as an explicit number or as a
symbolic name representing a numerical value.
 If X is shorter than a word, sign-extension is needed.
Indexing and Arrays
Index mode: X(Ri)

EA = X + [Ri]

ADD 20(R1), R2

R1=1000

EA= 20+1000=1020
Indexing and Arrays
 In general, the Index mode facilitates access to an operand
whose location is defined relative to a reference point within
the data structure in which the operand appears.
 Several variations of index mode:

1)(Ri, Rj)- Base with Index mode

EA = [Ri] + [Rj]
2)X(Ri, Rj) – Base index with offset mode
EA = X + [Ri] + [Rj]
Relative Addressing
 Relative mode – the effective address is determined by the Index mode
using the program counter in place of the general-purpose register.
 X(PC) – note that X is a signed number
 This mode is used to specify the target address in branch instructions.
 Branch>0 LOOP
 This location is computed by specifying it as an offset from the current
value of PC.
 Branch target may be either before or after the branch instruction, the
offset is given as a signed num.
Addressing Modes

 Relative Address
0
 EA = PC + Relative Addr 1
PC = 2 2

100
AR = 100
101
102 1 1 0 A
Could be Positive or 103
Negative 104
(2’s Complement)
Additional Modes
 Autoincrement mode – the effective address of the operand is the contents of a
register specified in the instruction. After accessing the operand, the contents of
this register are automatically incremented to point to the next item in a list.
 (Ri)+. The increment is 1 for byte-sized operands, 2 for 16-bit operands, and 4
for 32-bit operands.
 Autodecrement mode: -(Ri) – Contents of the register specified in the instruction
is decrement first and then used as the effective address of the operand
Move N,R1
Move #NUM1,R2 Initialization
Clear R0
LOOP Add (R2)+,R0
Decrement R1
Branch>0 LOOP
Move R0,SUM

Figure 2.16. The Autoincrement addressing mode used in the program of Figure 2.12.
Addressing Modes
Name Assembler syntax Addressing
function
 The different
ways in which Immediate #Value Operand= Value
the location of
an operand is Register Ri EA = Ri
specified in Absolute(Direct) LOC EA = LOC
an instruction
are referred to Indirect (R i ) EA = [Ri ]
as addressing (LOC) EA = [LOC]
modes.
Index X(R i) EA = [Ri ]+ X

Basewithindex (R i,R j ) EA = [Ri ]+ [Rj ]

Basewithindex X(R i,R j ) EA = [Ri ]+ [Rj ] + X
andoffset

Relative X(PC) EA = [PC] + X

Autoincrement (R i)+ EA = [Ri ] ;

Increment R i

Autodecrement  (R i ) Decrement R i ;
EA = [Ri]
Assembly Language
 Assembly Language
A Complete set of mnemonics (symbolic names) and rules for
their use constitute a programming language, referred to as an
Assembly Language.
 The set of rules for using mnemonics in the specification of

complete instructions and programs is called the syntax of the

language.
 Assembler is a collection of programs that are a part of system

software which converts(translates) programs written in

assembly language into a sequence of machine instructions.
 Assembly Language
 The user program written using alphanumeric text format is
called as Source Program.
 The assembled machine language program is called as

object program.
Assembler Directives:
• These are the instructions given to the assembler while it
translates a source program to object program.
• These are not converted into object program.
• Some of the assembler directives are : EQU, ORIGIN,
DATAWORD
Assembler Directives:
EQU(equate):
 This is used to define a constant value or a fixed address.
 The EQU directive does not set aside storage for a data item,

but associates a constant number with a data or an address

label so that when the label appears in the program, its
constant will be substituted for the label.
Assembler Directives:

ORIGIN:
 The origin directive tells the assembler where to load

instructions and data into memory.

 It changes the program counter to the value specified by the

expression in the operand field.

 Subsequent statements are assembled into memory locations

starting with the new program/location counter value.

 If no ORG directive is encountered in a source program, the

program counter is initialized to zero.

 Assembler Directives:

DATAWORD:
 This directive is used to load a value into the memory location.

RESERVE :
 This directive is used to reserve a memory block for data and

also associates a name to the block

START:
 It is the address of the location at which the execution of the

program is to begin
 END
 Tells the assembler that this is the end of the source program.
Assembly and Execution of programs
 Instruction
Format:
Label Operation Operand(s) Comment
Loader:
The loader is a system software program that loads the object
program from magnetic disc to the memory of a computer.
Debugger:
This is another system software program that detects and
reports the syntax errors to the user.
Number Notation
A decimal number is directly represented as
ADD #93,R1
 A binary number is identified by a prefix symbol %(percent

sign)
ADD #%01011101,R1
 A hexadecimal number is identified by a prefix symbol $(dollar

sign)
ADD #$5D,R1