TYPES OF DATA

PRESENTATION OF
DATA
Types of Presentation of
Data
 1.) Tabular Forms
 2.) Line Graphs
 3.) Pie Charts
 4.) Bar Charts
 5.) Histograms
 6.) Frequency Polygons
 7.) Ogives
 8.) Stem and Leaf Diagrams
 9.) Box and Whiskers Diagrams
 10.) Scatter Diagrams
 11.) Time Series Historigrams
 12.) Lorenz Curves
 13.) Z-Charts
 Tabular Forms

This type of information

occurs as individual observations,
usually as a table or array of
disorderly values.

1.1 Arrays
1.2 Simple Tables
1.3 Compound Tables
 1.1 Arrays
 - An array is a matrix of rows
and columns of numbers which have
been arranged in some order
(preferably ascending).
 Example:
 1.2 Simple Tables
 - A table is slightly more
complex than an array since it needs
a heading and the names of the
variables involved.
 Example:
 1.3 Compound Tables
 - A compound table is just an
extension of a simple in which there
are more than one variable
distributed among its attributes (sub-
variable).
 Example:

 Line Graphs

 A line graph is usually meant for

showing the frequencies for various
values of a variable.

 2.1 Single Line Graph

 2.2 Multiple Line Graph
 2.1 Single Line Graph
 - The simplest of line
graphs is the single line graph, so
called because it displays
information concerning one variable
only, in terms of its frequencies .
 Example:
 2.2 Multiple Line Graph
 - It illustrate information on
several variables so that comparison
is possible between them.
 Example:
 Pie Charts

 A pie chart or circular diagram is

one which essentially displays the
relative figures (proportions or
percentages) of classes or strata of a
given sample or population.

 3.1 Simple Pie Charts

 3.2 Enhanced Pie Charts
 Merits
 1. It gives a simple pictorial display of the
relative sizes of classes.
 2. It shows clearly when one class is more
important than another.
 3. It can be used for comparison of the same
elements but in two or more different
populations.

 Limitations
 1. It only shows the relative sizes of classes.
 2. It involves calculation of angles of sectors
and drawing them accurately.
 3. It is sometimes difficult to compare sectors
sizes accurately by eye.
 3.1 Simple Pie Chart
 -
Example:
 3.2 Enhanced Pie Chart
 - This is just an
enhancement of a simple pie chart in
order to lay emphasis on particular
sector.
 Example:
 Bar Charts

 The Bar Chart is the most

common methods of presenting data
in a visual form. Its main purpose is to
display quantities in the form of bars.

 4.1 Simple Bar Chart

 4.2 Multiple Bar Chart
 4.3 Component Bar Chart
 4.4 Percentage Bar Chart
 Merits
 1. The quantities can be easily read in
terms of height of the bars.
 2. Comparison can be made between
values of a variable.
 3. It can be used even for non-numerical
data.

 Limitations
 1. The class intervals must be equal in
the distribution.
 2. It cannot be used in the continuous
variables.
 4.1 Simple Bar Chart
 - It is used for the case of
one variable only .
 Example:

 4.2 Multiple Bar Chart
 - It is an extension of a
simple bar chart when there are
quantities of several variables to be
displayed.
 Example:
 Merits
 1. Comparison may be made among
components of the same variable.
 2. Comparison is also possible for the
same component across all variables.

 Limitations
 1. The figure becomes very
cumbersome when there are too many
variables and components.
 2. Only absolute, not relative, values
are available.
 4.3 Component Bar Chart
 - In this type of bar chart,
the components (quantities) of each
variable are piled on top of one
another.
 Example:
 Merits
 1. Comparison may be made among
components of the same variable.
 2. Comparison is also possible for the
same component across all variables.
 3. It saves space as compared to a
multiple bar chart.

 Limitations
 1. Only absolute, not relative, values are
available.
 2. It is awkward to compute the
quantities for individual components.
 4.4 Percentage Bar Chart
 - It displays the components
(quantities) percentages of each
variable, piled on top of one another.
 Example:
 Merits
 1. Comparison may be made among
components of the same variable.
 2. Comparison is also possible for the same
component across all variables.
 3. It saves space as compared to a multiple
bar chart.

 Limitations
 1. Only relative, not absolute, values are
available.
 2. It is awkward to compute the percentages
for individual components. Same quantities
do not necessarily mean same quantities.
 Histograms
 Out of several methods of presenting a
frequency distribution graphically, the histogram is
the most popular and widely used in practice. A
histogram is a set of vertical bars whose areas are
proportional to the frequencies of the classes that
they represent.
 A histogram is mainly used to display data for
continuous variables but can also be adjusted so
as to present discrete data by making an
appropriate continuity correcti0n.

 5.1 Histograms for Equal Class Intervals

 5.2 Histograms for Unequal Class Intervals
 5.1 Histograms for equal class
intervals
 Example:
 5.2 Histograms for unequal class
intervals
 When class intervals are
unequal, a correction must be made.
This consists of finding the frequency
density for each class, which is the
ratio of the frequency to the class
interval.
 Example:
 Frequency Polygons

 A frequency polygon is a graph of

frequency distribution.

 Two Ways of Drawing A Polygon

 6.1 By first drawing histogram for the

data
 6.2 Direct Construction
 6.1 Drawing a histogram first
 - Draw a histogram of the
given data and then join, by means
of straight lines, the midpoints of the
upper horizontal side of each
rectangle with the adjacent ones. It
is an accepted practice to close the
polygon at both ends of the
distribution by extending the lines to
the base line (x-axis).
 Example:
 6.2 Direct Construction
 - The frequency polygon may
also be directly drawn by finding the
points on the figure. The x-
coordinate of each point is the mid-
class value of the cell whilst the y-
coordinate is the frequency of the
cell (or frequency density if class
intervals are unequal). Successive
points are then linked by means of
line segments.
 Example:
 Ogives

 An Ogive is a typical shape of a

cumulative frequency curve or
polygon. It is generated when
cumulative frequencies are plotted
against real limits of classes in a
distribution.

 7.1 ‘Less than’ cumulative frequency

ogive
 7.2 ‘More than’ cumulative frequency
 Cumulative Frequency
 It means that the frequencies of classes
are accumulated over the entire distribution.
 Definition 1
 The ‘less than’ CF of a class is the total
number observations, in the entire
distribution, which are less than or equal to
the lower real limit of the class.
 Definition 2
 The ‘more than’ CF of a class is the
total number of observations, in the entire
distribution, which are greater than or equal
to the lower real limit of the class.
 Example:
 7.1 ‘Less than’ cumulative
frequency ogive
 - It is used to determine the
number of observations which fall
below a given value. We can thus
use it to estimate the value of the
median and other percentiles by
interpolation on the ogive itself.
 The points on a ‘less than’
CF ogive have upper real limits for x-
coordinates and less than for y-
coordinates.
 Example:
 7.2 ‘More Than’ cumulative
frequency ogive
 - It is used to determine
the number of observations which
fall above a given value.
 The points on a ’more
than’ CF ogive have lower real limits
for x-coordinates and more than CF
for y-coordinates.
 Example:
 Stem and Leaf Diagrams

 Stem and leaf diagrams or stemplots

are used to represent raw data, that is,
individual observations, without loss of
information. The ‘leaves’ in the diagram
are actually the last digits of the values
(observations) while the ‘stems’ are the
remaining part of the values.

 8.1 Simple Stem and Leaf Plot

 8.2 Back-to-Back Stemplots
 8.1 Simpple stem and leaf plot
 Example:
 8.2 Back-to-back Stem plot
 - These stemplots are
mainly designed to compare two
distributions in terms of spread and
skewness.
 Example:
 Merits
 1. There is no loss of information from the
original data.
 2. All descriptive statistics can be exactly
calculated or located.
 3. If rotated through an angle of 90 deg.
anticlockwise, the figure resembles a bar chart
from which the distribution (spread and
skewness) of observations can be readily
observed.

 Limitations
 1. the figure becomes too lengthy if there are
too many observations.
 2. It is applicable only to discrete data.
 Box and Whiskers Diagrams
 It is common known as boxplots. These diagrams
are specially designed to display dispersion and
skewness in a distribution. The figure consists of a
‘box’ in the middle from which two lines (whiskers)
extend respectively to the minimum and maximum
values of the distribution.

 A boxplot is drawn according to 5 descriptive

statistics:
 1. Minimum Value
 2. Lower Quartile
 3. Median
 4. Upper Quartile
 5. Maximum Value
 Example:
 What information can be gathered from
a boxplot?
 1. The range
 2. The Inter-quartile range
 3. The skewness of the distribution
Using the boxplot for comparison
 Scatter Diagrams

 Scatter diagrams, also known as

‘scatterplots’, are used to investigate
the relationship between two
variables. If it is suspected that a
casual (cause-effect) relationship
exists between two variables,
inspection of a scatterplot may well
independent (explanatory) variable,
also known as predictor, and a
dependent (response) variable.
 Example:
 Time Series Historigrams

 A time series is a series of figures

which show the evolution of a
variable over time.

 Example:

 Lorenz Curves

 The Lorenz curve is a device

for demonstrating the evenness, by
verifying the degree of concentration
of a property, of a distribution.
 Example:

 Z-Charts
 The usefulness of a Z-Chart is for presenting
business data. It shows the following:

 1. The value of a variable plotted against time

over the year.
 2. The cumulative sum of values for that variable
over the year to date.
 3. The annual moving total for that variable.

 The annual moving total is the sum of the values

of the variable for the 12-month period up to the
end of the month under consideration.
 Example:
 Interpretation of Z-Charts

 1. Monthly totals show the monthly results at a

glance with any seasonal variations.
 2. Cumulative totals show the performance to
data and can be easily compared with planned
and budgeted performance by superimposing
the budget line.
 3. Annual moving totals compare the current
levels of performance with those of the previous
year. If the line is rising, then this year’s monthly
results are better than the results of the
corresponding month last year. The opposite
applies if the line failing. The annual moving
total line indicates the long term trend of the
variable, whether rising, failing or steady.