Chapter 2 Motion Along a Straight Line

2-0. Mathematical Concept

2.1. What is Physics?
2.2. Motion
2.3. Position and Displacement
2.4. Average Velocity and Average Speed
2.5. Instantaneous Velocity and Speed
2.6. Acceleration
2.7. Constant Acceleration: A Special Case
2.8. Another Look at Constant Acceleration
2.9. Free-Fall Acceleration
2.10. Graphical Integration in Motion Analysis
 Trigonometry
Example 1 Using Trigonometric Functions
On a sunny day, a tall building casts a shadow that is
67.2 m long. The angle between the sun’s rays and the
ground is =50.0°, as Figure 1.6 shows. Determine the
height of the building.
 Trigonometric Functions
h0 h0
sin   1
 sin ( )
h h
ha ha1
cos    cos ( )
h h
h0 h0
tan   1
 tan ( )
ha ha
PYTHAGOREAN THEOREM
2 2 2
h h0  ha
Example 1 Using Trigonometric Functions

On a sunny day, a tall

building casts a shadow
that is 67.2 m long. The
angle between the sun’s
rays and the ground is
=50.0°, as Figure 1.6
shows. Determine the
height of the building.
Solution
Have you ever seen this?
Theodolite Working Diagram
What is the location of downtown Wilmington?
N̂

Market St. is 6°

north of east

Ŵ Ê

To specify a location downtown,

it’s more convenient to use the
Market St./ 3rd St. coordinate system
than the East/North coordinate
system

Ŝ
Defining a Coordinate System

One-dimensional coordinate system consists of:

• a point of reference known as the origin (or zero point),

• a line that passes through the chosen origin called a

coordinate axis, one direction along the coordinate axis,
chosen as positive and the other direction as negative,
and the units we use to measure a quantity
 Scalars and Vectors
• A scalar quantity is one that can be described with a
single number (including any units) giving its magnitude.

• A Vector must be described with both magnitude and

direction.

A vector can be represented by an

arrow:
•The length of the arrow represents
the magnitude (always positive) of
the vector.
•The direction of the arrow represents
the direction of the vector.
 A component of a vector along an axis
(one-dimension)
A UNIT VECTOR FOR
A COORDINATE AXIS
is a dimensionless
vector that points in the
direction along a
coordinate axis that is
chosen to be positive.

A one-dimensional vector can be constructed by:

•Multiply the unit vector by the magnitude of the vector
•Multiply a sign: a positive sign if the vector points to the same
direction of the unit vector; a negative sign if the vector points to
the opposite direction of the unit vector.

A component of a vector along an axis=sign × magnitude

 Difference between vectors and scalars

• The fundamental distinction between

scalars and vectors is the characteristic of
direction. Vectors have it, and scalars do
not.

• Negative value of a scalar means how

much it below zero; negative component
of a vector means the direction of the
vector points to a negative direction.
 Check Your Understanding 1

Which of the following statements, if any,

involves a vector?
(a) I walked 2 miles along the beach.
(b) I walked 2 miles due north along the beach.
(c) I jumped off a cliff and hit the water traveling at
17 miles per hour.
(d) I jumped off a cliff and hit the water traveling
straight down at 17 miles per hour.
(e) My bank account shows a negative balance of
–25 dollars.
 Solution

(a) I walked 2 miles along the beach.

This statement only provides the magnitude (2 miles), but no direction is
specified, so it does not involve a vector.
(b) I walked 2 miles due north along the beach.
This statement provides both magnitude (2 miles) and direction (due north),
so it does involve a vector.
(c) I jumped off a cliff and hit the water traveling at 17 miles per hour.
This statement gives only the magnitude (17 miles per hour), but no direction
is specified, so it does not involve a vector.
(d) I jumped off a cliff and hit the water traveling straight down at 17 miles
per hour.
This statement gives both magnitude (17 miles per hour) and direction
(straight down), so it does involve a vector.
(e) My bank account shows a negative balance of –25 dollars.
While this statement involves a negative quantity, it does not refer to a physical
direction, so it does not involve a vector.
Motion

• The world, and

everything in it, moves.
• Kinematics: describes
motion.
• Dynamics: deals with
the causes of motion.
One-dimensional position vector

• The magnitude of the position vector is a scalar that denotes the

distance between the object and the origin.

• The direction of the position vector is positive when the object is

located to the positive side of axis from the origin and negative
when the object is located to the negative side of axis from the
origin.
 Displacement

• DISPLACEMENT is defined as the change of an object's

position that occurs during a period of time.

• The displacement is a vector that points from an object’s

initial position to its final position and has a magnitude
that equals the shortest distance between the two
positions.
• SI Unit of Displacement: meter (m)
Example 2: Determine the displacement in the following cases:

(a) A particle moves along a line from

to

(b) A particle moves from to

(c) A particle starts at 5 m, moves to 2 m, and then returns to 5 m

Solution
 EXAMPLE 3: Displacements
Three pairs of initial and final positions along
an x axis represent the location of objects
at two successive times: (pair 1) –3 m, +5
m; (pair 2) –3 m, –7 m; (pair 3) 7 m, –3 m.
• (a) Which pairs give a negative
displacement?
• (b) Calculate the value of the displacement
in each case using vector notation.
 Solution Method 1
• The displacement is negative if the final position
is less than the initial position. Let’s check each
pair:
• Pair 1: Initial position −3 m, final position +5 m
Since 5 m>−3 m, the displacement is positive.
• Pair 2: Initial position −3 m, final position −7 m
Since −7 m<−3 m, the displacement is negative.
• Pair 3: Initial position 7 m, final position −3 m
Since −3 m<7 m, the displacement is negative.
Solution Method 2
 Velocity and Speed

A student standing still with

the back of her belt at a
horizontal distance of 2.00
m to the left of a spot of the
sidewalk designated as the
origin.
A student starting to walk
slowly. The horizontal
position of the back of her
belt starts at a horizontal
distance of 2.47 m to the
left of a spot designated as
the origin. She is speeding
up for a few seconds and
then slowing down.
 Average Velocity
Displacement
Average velocity=
Elapsed time

x x  x2  x1 
v   i  i
t t t2  t1
• x2 and x1 are components of the position vectors at the
final and initial times, and angle brackets denotes the
average of a quantity.

• SI Unit of Average Velocity: meter per second (m/s)

Example 4 The World’s Fastest Jet-Engine Car

Figure (a) shows that the car

first travels from left to right
and covers a distance of 1609
m (1 mile) in a time of 4.740 s.
Figure (b) shows that in the
reverse direction, the car
covers the same distance in
4.695 s. From these data,
determine the average
velocity for each run.
 Solution
For Run 1
•Distance = 1609 m
•Time = 4.740 s
•The car is moving from left to right, so the displacement is positive.

For Run 2
•Distance = 1609 m
•Time = 4.695 s
•In the reverse direction, the displacement is negative because the car
is traveling in the opposite direction.
 Solution
Overall Velocity
•Since the car travels 1609 m in one direction and then
returns the same distance in the opposite direction, the
total displacement is zero:
Total Displacement = 1609m−1609m = 0m

•The total time is the sum of the times for both runs:
Total Time = 4.740s+4.695s = 9.435s

•Now, applying the formula for overall average velocity:

Overall Average Velocity= 0m / 9.435s​= 0m/s
• Example 5: find the average velocity for
the student motion represented by the
graph shown in Fig. 2-9 between the
times t1 = 1.0 s and t2 = 1.5 s.
 Solution
• From the table:
– At t1​=1.0s, 𝑥1=−1.24 𝑚
– At t2​=1.5s, 𝑥2=−0.22 𝑚
• Now, calculate the changes:

• Average Velocity:
 Average Speed

Average speed is defined as:

Check Your Understanding
A straight track is 1600 m in length. A
runner begins at the starting line, runs due
east for the full length of the track, turns
around, and runs halfway back. The time
for this run is five minutes. What is the
runner’s average velocity, and what is his
average speed?
 Solution
• Average velocity is the total displacement
divided by the total time.
• Average speed is the total distance traveled
divided by the total time.

• Length of the track = 1600 m

• Total time = 5 minutes = 5×60=300 s
 Solution (Cont…)
• The runner runs 1600 m east and 800 m
west, so the total distance is:
• 1600m+800m=2400m
• Total displacement = 800 m
 EXAMPLE 6
You drive a beat-up pickup truck along a straight road for
8.4 km at 70 km/h, at which point the truck runs out of
gasoline and stops. Over the next 30 min, you walk
another 2.0 km farther along the road to a gasoline
station.

• (a) What is your overall displacement from the beginning

of your drive to your arrival at the station?

• (b) What is the time interval from the beginning of your

drive to your arrival at the station? What is your average
velocity from the beginning of your drive to your arrival
at the station? Find it both numerically and graphically.
Suppose that to pump the gasoline, pay for it, and walk
back to the truck takes you another 45 min. What is your
average speed from the beginning of your drive to your
return to the truck with the gasoline?
 Solution
• Distance driven in the truck = 8.4 km
• Speed of the truck = 70 km/h
• Walking distance = 2.0 km
• Time spent walking = 30 minutes = 0.5
hours
• Additional time spent pumping gasoline,
paying for it, and walking back to the truck
= 45 minutes = 0.75 hours
• Displacement is the straight-line distance
from the starting point to the final point at
the gasoline station.
• Distance driven in the truck: 8.4 km
• Distance walked: 2.0 km

Overall displacement=8.4 km+2.0 km=10.4 km

• Total time from the beginning of the drive to
arrival at the station:
• Driving time:

• Walking time: 30 minutes = 0.5 hours

Total time = 0.12 hours + 0.5 hours
= 0.62 hours
Average speed (including return to the truck):
•Drive: 8.4 km
•Walk to the gasoline station: 2.0 km
•Walk back to the truck: 2.0 km
Total distance = 8.4 km + 2.0 km + 2.0 km
= 12.4 km
•Time driving: 0.12 hours
•Time walking to the station: 0.5 hours
•Time spent at the station and walking back: 0.75 hours
Total time = 0.12 hours + 0.5 hours + 0.75 hours
= 1.37 hours
 Instantaneous Velocity and Speed

 x dx dx 
v lim   i
t  0 t dt dt

• The instantaneous velocity of an object can be obtained

by taking the slope of a graph of the position component
vs. time at the point associated with that moment in time

• The instantaneous velocity can be obtained by taking a

derivative with respect to time of the object's position.

• Instantaneous speed, which is typically called simply

speed, is just the magnitude of the instantaneous
velocity vector,
 Example 7
The following equations give the position component,
x(t), along the x axis of a particle's motion in four
situations (in each equation, x is in meters, t is in
seconds, and t > 0): (1) x = (3 m/s)t – (2 m);
(2) x = (–4 m/s2)t2 – (2 m); (3) x = (–4 m/s2)t2;
(4) x = –2 m.
• (a) In which situations is the velocity of the particle
constant?
• (b) In which is the vector pointing in the negative x
direction?
Solution
How to Describe Change of Velocity ?
 Definition of Acceleration

Change in velocity
Average acceleration=
Elapsed time
 
 v2  v1 v
a  
t2  t1 t

SI Unit of Average Acceleration: meter

per second squared (m/s2)
Instantaneous acceleration:

 2
 dv d dx d x
a  ( ) 2
dt dt dt dt
• An object is accelerated even if all that changes
is only the direction of its velocity and not its
speed.

• It is important to realize that speeding up is not

always associated with an acceleration that is
positive. Likewise, slowing down is not always
associated with an acceleration that is negative.
The relative directions of an object's velocity and
acceleration determine whether the object will
speed up or slow down.
 EXERCISE
A cat moves along an x axis. What is the sign of
its acceleration if it is moving
(a) in the positive direction with increasing speed,
(b) in the positive direction with decreasing speed,
(c) in the negative direction with increasing speed,
and
(d) in the negative direction with decreasing
speed?
 Solution
• (a) The cat is moving in the positive x-direction,
and its speed is increasing.
– Acceleration is in the same direction as the velocity
when speed is increasing.
– Since the velocity is positive and the speed is
increasing, the acceleration is positive.
• (b) The cat is moving in the positive x-direction,
but its speed is decreasing.
– Acceleration is in the opposite direction to the velocity
when speed is decreasing.
– Since the velocity is positive and the speed is
decreasing, the acceleration is negative.
• (c) The cat is moving in the negative x-direction,
and its speed is increasing.
– Acceleration is in the same direction as the velocity
when speed is increasing.
– Since the velocity is negative and the speed is
increasing, the acceleration is negative.

• (d) The cat is moving in the negative x-direction,

but its speed is decreasing.
– Acceleration is in the opposite direction to the velocity
when speed is decreasing.
– Since the velocity is negative and the speed is
decreasing, the acceleration is positive.
EXAMPLE 8: Position and Motion
A particle's position on the x axis is given by
with x in meters and t in seconds.
• (a) Find the particle's velocity function and
acceleration function .
• (b) Is there ever a time when vx 0 ?
• (c) Describe the particle's motion for t 0
 Solution
• Velocity:
 Solution (Cont…)
• Acceleration
Solution (Cont…)
Solution (Cont…)
Free-Fall Acceleration
 Example 9 A Falling Stone
A stone is dropped from
rest from the top of a
tall building, as Figure
2.17 indicates. After
3.00 s of free-fall,
(a) what is the velocity of
the stone?
(b) what is the
displacement y of the
stone?
 Solution
• Initial velocity, 𝑣o=0 m/s (since the stone is

• Acceleration due to gravity, 𝑔=9.8 m/s2

dropped from rest)

• Time, 𝑡=3.00 s
• The formula for the velocity 𝑣 of an object in free

𝑣=𝑣o+𝑔𝑡
fall is:

V = 0m/s+(9.8m/s2×3.00s)
v=29.4m/s
 Solution (Cont…)
• The formula for the displacement “y” of an
object in free fall is:
• y=v0​t+(1/2)​gt2
 Example 10 An Accelerating Spacecraft

The spacecraft shown in

Figure 2.14a is traveling with
a velocity of +3250 m/s.
Suddenly the retrorockets
are fired, and the spacecraft
begins to slow down with an
acceleration whose
magnitude is 10.0 m/s2.
What is the velocity of the
spacecraft when the
displacement of the craft is
+215 km, relative to the point
where the retrorockets began
firing
 Example 11

Spotting a police car, you brake your Porsche

from a speed of 100 km/h to a speed of 80.0
km/h during a displacement of 88.0 m, at a
constant acceleration.

• What is that acceleration?

• (b) How much time is required for the given

decrease in speed?
 Conceptual Question
1. A honeybee leaves the hive and travels 2 km before
returning. Is the displacement for the trip the same as
the distance traveled? If not, why not?

2. Two buses depart from Chicago, one going to New York

and one to San Francisco. Each bus travels at a speed
of 30 m/s. Do they have equal velocities? Explain.

3. One of the following statements is incorrect. (a) The car

traveled around the track at a constant velocity. (b) The
car traveled around the track at a constant speed.
Which statement is incorrect and why?
4. At a given instant of time, a car and a truck are
traveling side by side in adjacent lanes of a highway.
The car has a greater velocity than the truck. Does
the car necessarily have a greater acceleration?
Explain.

5. The average velocity for a trip has a positive value. Is

it possible for the instantaneous velocity at any point
during the trip to have a negative value? Justify your
answer.

6. An object moving with a constant acceleration can

certainly slow down. But can an object ever come to a
permanent halt if its acceleration truly remains
constant? Explain.
 Answers
1. No, the displacement is zero because the bee returns to its starting
point, while the distance traveled is 2 km.
2. No, they do not have equal velocities because they are traveling in
different directions.
3. Statement (a) is incorrect because velocity includes direction, and
the car's direction changes as it travels around the track.
4. No, the car may have a greater velocity, but its acceleration could
be less than or equal to the truck’s, depending on how each
vehicle's velocity changes over time.
5. Yes, the instantaneous velocity can be negative at some points if
the object changes direction, even if the average velocity for the
trip is positive.
6. No, an object with constant acceleration cannot come to a
permanent halt unless the acceleration is zero; it will either speed
up or slow down continuously.