Lecture 2

The Relational Data Model

and
Relational Database Constraints
Outline

 Relational Model Concepts

 Relational Model Constraints
 Relational Database Schemas
 Update Operations
 Constraint Violations
Relational Database Model
 Data represented as a set of related tables or relations
 Relation
 A named, two-dimensional table of data. Each relation
consists of a set of named columns and an arbitrary
number of unnamed rows
 Properties

Entries in cells are simple

Entries in columns are from the same set of values

Each row is unique

The sequence of columns can be interchanged without
changing the meaning or use of the relation

The rows may be interchanged or stored in any sequence
Informal Definitions
 Informally, a relation looks like a table of values.
 A relation typically contains a set of rows.
 The data elements in each row represent certain facts that
correspond to a real-world entity or relationship
 In the formal model, rows are called tuples
 Each column has a column header that gives an indication
of the meaning of the data items in that column
 In the formal model, the column header is called an attribute
name (or just attribute)
Example of a Relation
Formal Definitions - Schema
 The Schema (or description) of a Relation:
 Denoted by R(A1, A2, .....An)
 R is the name of the relation
 The attributes of the relation are A1, A2, ..., An
 Example:
CUSTOMER (Cust-id, Cust-name, Address, Phone#)
 CUSTOMER is the relation name
 Defined over the four attributes: Cust-id, Cust-name,
Address, Phone#
 Each attribute has a domain or a set of valid values.
 For example, the domain of Cust-id is 6 digit numbers.
Relational Database Schema
 Relational Database Schema:
 A set S of relation schemas that belong to the
same database.
 S is the name of the whole database schema
 S = {R1, R2, ..., Rn}
 R1, R2, …, Rn are the names of the individual
relation schemas within the database S
 Following slide shows a COMPANY database
schema with 6 relation schemas
COMPANY Database Schema
Formal Definitions - Tuple
 A tuple is an ordered set of values (enclosed in angled
brackets ‘< … >’)
 Each value is derived from an appropriate domain.
 A row in the CUSTOMER relation is a 4-tuple and would
consist of four values, for example:
 <632895, "John Smith", "101 Main St. Atlanta, GA 30332",
"(404) 894-2000">
 This is called a 4-tuple as it has 4 values
 A tuple (row) in the CUSTOMER relation.
 A relation is a set of such tuples (rows)
Formal Definitions - Domain
 A domain has a logical definition:
 Example: “USA_phone_numbers” are the set of 10 digit phone
numbers valid in the U.S.
 A domain also has a data-type or a format defined for it.
 The USA_phone_numbers may have a format: (ddd)ddd-dddd where
each d is a decimal digit.
 Dates have various formats such as year, month, date formatted
as yyyy-mm-dd, or as dd mm,yyyy etc.
 The attribute name designates the role played by a domain in a
relation:
 Used to interpret the meaning of the data elements corresponding

to that attribute
 Example: The domain Date may be used to define two attributes
named “Invoice-date” and “Payment-date” with different meanings
 Definition Summary
Informal Terms Formal Terms

Table Relation

Column Header Attribute

All possible Column Domain

Values

Row Tuple

Table Definition Schema of a Relation

Populated Table State of the Relation

Example – A relation STUDENT
Characteristics Of Relations

 Ordering of tuples in a relation r(R):

 The tuples are not considered to be ordered, even
though they appear to be in the tabular form.
 Ordering of attributes in a relation schema R (and of
values within each tuple):
 We will consider the attributes in R(A1, A2, ..., An) and
the values in t=<v1, v2, ..., vn> to be ordered .

(However, a more general alternative definition of
relation does not require this ordering).
Same state as previous Figure (but with
different order of tuples)
Characteristics Of Relations
 Values in a tuple:
 All values are considered atomic (indivisible).
 Each value in a tuple must be from the domain of
the attribute for that column

If tuple t = <v1, v2, …, vn> is a tuple (row) in the
relation state r of R(A1, A2, …, An)

Then each vi must be a value from dom(Ai)
 A special null value is used to represent values
that are unknown or inapplicable to certain tuples.
Relational Integrity Constraints
 Constraints are conditions that must hold on all valid
relation states.
 There are three main types of constraints in the relational
model:
 Key constraints
 Entity integrity constraints
 Referential integrity constraints
 Another implicit constraint is the domain constraint
 Every value in a tuple must be from the domain of its
attribute (or it could be null, if allowed for that attribute)
Key Constraints
 Superkey of R:
 Is a set of attributes SK of R with the following condition:

No two tuples in any valid relation state r(R) will have the
same value for SK

That is, for any distinct tuples t1 and t2 in r(R), t1[SK]  t2[SK]

This condition must hold in any valid state r(R)
 Key of R:
 A "minimal" superkey
 That is, a key is a superkey K such that removal of any attribute
from K results in a set of attributes that is not a superkey (does
not possess the superkey uniqueness property)
Key Constraints (continued)
 Example: Consider the CAR relation schema:
 CAR(State, Reg#, SerialNo, Make, Model, Year)
 CAR has two keys:

Key1 = {State, Reg#}

Key2 = {SerialNo}
 Both are also superkeys of CAR
 {SerialNo, Make} is a superkey but not a key.
 In general:
 Any key is a superkey (but not vice versa)
 Any set of attributes that includes a key is a superkey
 A minimal superkey is also a key
Key Constraints (continued)
 If a relation has several candidate keys, one is chosen
arbitrarily to be the primary key.
 The primary key attributes are underlined.

 Example: Consider the CAR relation schema:

 CAR(State, Reg#, SerialNo, Make, Model, Year)

 We chose SerialNo as the primary key

 The primary key value is used to uniquely identify each tuple in

a relation
 Provides the tuple identity

 Also used to reference the tuple from another tuple

 General rule: Choose as primary key the smallest of the

candidate keys (in terms of size)

 Not always applicable – choice is sometimes subjective
CAR table with two candidate keys – LicenseNumber
chosen as Primary Key
Entity Integrity
 Entity Integrity:
 The primary key attributes PK of each relation schema
R in S cannot have null values in any tuple of r(R).

This is because primary key values are used to identify the
individual tuples.

t[PK]  null for any tuple t in r(R)

If PK has several attributes, null is not allowed in any of these
attributes

 Note: Other attributes of R may be constrained to

disallow null values, even though they are not
members of the primary key.
Referential Integrity

 A constraint involving two relations

 The previous constraints involve a single relation.
 Used to specify a relationship among tuples in
two relations:
 The referencing relation and the referenced
relation.
Referential Integrity
 Tuples in the referencing relation R1 have attributes
FK (called foreign key attributes) that reference the
primary key attributes PK of the referenced relation
R2.
 A tuple t1 in R1 is said to reference a tuple t2 in
R2 if t1[FK] = t2[PK].
 A referential integrity constraint can be displayed in a
relational database schema as a directed arc from
R1.FK to R2.
 Referential Integrity (or foreign key)
Constraint
 Statement of the constraint
 The value in the foreign key column (or columns)
FK of the the referencing relation R1 can be
either:

(1) a value of an existing primary key value of a
corresponding primary key PK in the referenced
relation R2, or

(2) a null.
 In case (2), the FK in R1 should not be a part of
its own primary key.
Displaying a relational database schema and
its constraints
 Each relation schema can be displayed as a row of
attribute names
 The name of the relation is written above the attribute
names
 The primary key attribute (or attributes) will be underlined
 A foreign key (referential integrity) constraints is displayed
as a directed arc (arrow) from the foreign key attributes to
the referenced table
 Can also point the primary key of the referenced relation for
clarity
 Next slide shows the COMPANY relational schema
diagram
Referential Integrity Constraints for COMPANY database
Populated database state
 Each relation will have many tuples in its current relation
state
 The relational database state is a union of all the
individual relation states
 Whenever the database is changed, a new state arises
 Basic operations for changing the database:
 INSERT a new tuple in a relation
 DELETE an existing tuple from a relation
 MODIFY an attribute of an existing tuple
 Next slide shows an example state for the COMPANY
database
Populated database state for COMPANY
Update Operations on Relations
 INSERT a tuple.
 DELETE a tuple.
 MODIFY a tuple.
 Integrity constraints should not be violated by the
update operations.
 Several update operations may have to be
grouped together.
 Updates may propagate to cause other updates
automatically. This may be necessary to maintain
integrity constraints.
Update Operations on Relations
 In case of integrity violation, several actions can
be taken:
 Cancel the operation that causes the violation
(RESTRICT or REJECT option)
 Perform the operation but inform the user of the
violation
 Trigger additional updates so the violation is
corrected (CASCADE option, SET NULL option)
 Execute a user-specified error-correction routine
Possible violations for each operation
 INSERT may violate any of the constraints:
 Domain constraint:

if one of the attribute values provided for the new tuple is not
of the specified attribute domain
 Key constraint:

if the value of a key attribute in the new tuple already exists in
another tuple in the relation
 Referential integrity:

if a foreign key value in the new tuple references a primary
key value that does not exist in the referenced relation
 Entity integrity:

if the primary key value is null in the new tuple
Possible violations for each operation
 DELETE may violate only referential integrity:
 If the primary key value of the tuple being deleted is
referenced from other tuples in the database

Can be remedied by several actions: RESTRICT, CASCADE,
SET NULL
 RESTRICT option: reject the deletion
 CASCADE option: propagate the new primary key value into the
foreign keys of the referencing tuples
 SET NULL option: set the foreign keys of the referencing tuples
to NULL

 One of the above options must be specified during

database design for each foreign key constraint
Possible violations for each operation
 UPDATE may violate domain constraint and NOT NULL
constraint on an attribute being modified
 Any of the other constraints may also be violated,
depending on the attribute being updated:
 Updating the primary key (PK):

Similar to a DELETE followed by an INSERT

Need to specify similar options to DELETE
 Updating a foreign key (FK):

May violate referential integrity
 Updating an ordinary attribute (neither PK nor FK):

Can only violate domain constraints
Summary
 Presented Relational Model Concepts
 Definitions
 Characteristics of relations
 Discussed Relational Model Constraints and Relational
Database Schemas
 Domain constraints’
 Key constraints
 Entity integrity
 Referential integrity
 Described the Relational Update Operations and Dealing
with Constraint Violations
 Integrity Constraints

(Data Integrity Constraints)

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 Objectives
 Learn the types and the uses of constraints

 Examine the syntax and options for creating

constraints
 Work with practical examples of creating,

modifying, and dropping constraints

 Query database dictionary views to monitor

constraints

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Introduction to Constraints
Constraints:
 Are rules or restrictions that guide database
inserts, updates, and deletions
 Keep invalid or erroneous data out of the
database
 Can be enforced by:
 Declaring integrity constraints The focus
of this
 Writing a database trigger chapter
 Programming constraints into an application

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Types of Constraints
Types of constraints:

 PRIMARY KEY: enforces primary key

 UNIQUE: prevents duplicate values

 FOREIGN KEY: enforces parent/child
relationships
 NOT NULL: prevents storage of null
values

 CHECK: validates values

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Integrity Constraints
• Integrity constraints ensure that changes (update
deletion, insertion) made to the database by
authorized users do not result in a loss of data
consistency.

• Database integrity refers to the validity and

consistency of stored data.

• Thus, integrity constraints guard against

accidental damage to the database.
• Integrity is usually expressed in terms of constraints, which
are consistency rules that the database is not permitted to
violate.

• Constraints may apply to each attribute or they may apply to

relationships between tables.

For examples; an integrity constraint could state that:

• A student’s grade point average cannot be less than 0.00 or

grater than 4.00.

• A brood group must be ‘A’ or ‘B’ or ‘AB’ or ‘O’ only (can not
be any other values else).
Domain Constraints
Since every attribute has an associated domain, there are
constraints (called domain constraints) in the form of
restrictions on the set of values allowed for the attributes of
relations. (A requirement that the values of an attribute must
come from a specific domain).

Domain Constraints are the most elementary form of

integrity constraint. They are tested easily by the system
whenever a new data item is entered into the database.
 Referential Integrity
 Referential Integrity is a constraint to enforce relationship
between primary key of one relation and foreign key of the
other relation.
 Referential Integrity is used to ensure that each value of a
foreign key attribute refers to an entity that appears in the
foreign table.
 Any attempt to modify the database contents that would
cause a foreign key constraint violation must be disallowed.
 The constraint is specified in the database schema, and the
database system enforces it.
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Relational Integrity Constraints

 Constraints are conditions that must hold on all

valid relation instances. There are three main
types of constraints:
1. Key constraints
2. Entity integrity constraints
3. Referential integrity constraints

45
Key Constraints…1
 Superkey: Refer to a set of attributes such that
no two tuples in any valid relation instance will
have the same value. That is, for any distinct
tuples t1 and t2 in r(R), t1[SK]  t2[SK].
 Key: A "minimal" superkey; that is, a superkey
K such that removal of any attribute from K
results in a set of attributes that is not a
superkey.
46
Key Constraints…2
Example: The CAR relation schema:
CAR(State, Reg#, SerialNo, Make, Model, Year)
has two keys
Key1 = {State, Reg#},
Key2 = {SerialNo}.
{SerialNo, Make} is a superkey but not a key.
 If a relation has several candidate keys, one is
chosen arbitrarily to be the primary key. The
primary key attributes are underlined.
47
Entity Integrity:

 The primary key attributes PK of each relation

schema R cannot have null values in any tuple of
r(R). This is because primary key values are used
to identify the individual tuples.

48
Referential Integrity
 A constraint involving two relations (the previous
constraints involve a single relation).
 Used to specify a relationship among tuples in
two relations: the referencing relation and the
referenced relation.
 Tuples in the referencing relation R1 have
attributes FK (called foreign key attributes) that
reference the primary key attributes PK of the
referenced relation R2.
49
Example of PRIMARY KEY and FOREIGN KEY constraints

50
 How to Create and Maintain Integrity
Constraints

Two methods for creating integrity constraints:

 Code them in the CREATE TABLE command

 Add them later with the ALTER TABLE command

51
Chapter Summary
 Integrity constraints can be enforced using
declared constraints, triggers, or application
programming
 A FOREIGN KEY constraint identifies a
parent/child relationship between two tables and
is defined on the child table
 Constraints can be created with the CREATE
TABLE and the ALTER TABLE commands
 Use the ALTER TABLE statement to rename,
drop, or change the state of a constraint

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Chapter Summary
 To remove the NOT NULL constraint, use
ALTER TABLE MODIFY (column...) statement
 When a PRIMARY KEY constraint is created
(and not disabled), a unique index is created to
help enforce the constraint
 Use the NOVALIDATE constraint state when you
do not want existing rows to be checked for
compliance with a constraint
 The default states of a constraint are ENABLE,
VALIDATE, INITIALLY IMMEDIATE,
NOT DEFERRABLE, and NORELY
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Chapter Summary
 ENABLE … EXCEPTIONS into … can be used
after creating a table (usually called
EXCEPTIONS) to hold the rowid of rows that
violate a constraint
 ON DELETE CASCADE and ON DELETE SET
NULL define the behavior of the database when a
parent row is deleted
 The CHECK constraint can look for a specified
list of values or other simple expressions

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In-Class Exercise
Consider the following relations for a database that keeps track of student
enrollment in courses and the books adopted for each course:
STUDENT(SSN, Name, Major, Bdate)
COURSE(Course#, Cname, Dept)
ENROLL(SSN, Course#, Quarter, Grade)
BOOK_ADOPTION(Course#, Quarter, Book_ISBN)
TEXT(Book_ISBN, Book_Title, Publisher, Author)
Draw a relational schema diagram specifying the foreign keys for this
schema.