Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology, Greater

Noida

Set Theory, Relation and

Function(CO1)

Unit: 1

Discrete Mathematics
(AMCA 0105) BHUSHAN
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
MCA 1st Semester
MCA Department

BHUSHAN AMCA 0105 and DM UNIT 1

1
11/20/24
 Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology, Greater
Noida
Brief Profile of Mr. BHUSHAN
• Mr. BHUSHAN is an eminent personality in the field of computer science
education, serving NIET Greater Noida as Assistant Professor.
• He have 2+ years experience as I.T Professional
• He has guided around 30 PG thesis and projects of MCA Students
• Online certification course on C++ Programming a Practical Approach and
Design analysis and Algorithms by Electronics & ICT Academy in IIT Kanpur

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 Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology, Greater
Noida

Evaluation Scheme First Semester

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 Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology, Greater
Noida
Course Contents / Syllabus
UNIT-I Set Theory, Relations & Functions 8 hours

Set Theory: Introduction, Size of sets and cardinals, Venn diagrams,

Combination of sets, Multisets, Ordered pairs, Set identities and Proofs of
some general identities on sets.
Relations & Functions: Definition, Operations on relations, Composite
relations, Properties of relations, Equality of relations, Partial order relation
and Recursive definition of relation. Functions - Definition, Classification
of functions, Operations on functions, Recursively defined functions and
Growth of Functions.
Natural Numbers: Introduction, Piano’s axioms, Mathematical Induction,
Strong Induction and Induction with Nonzero Base cases.

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 Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology, Greater
Noida

Course Contents / Syllabus

Posets, Hasse Diagram, Lattices and 8 hours
UNIT-2
Graph:

Posets, Hasse Diagram and Lattices: Introduction, Partial order sets,

Combination of partial order sets, Hasse diagram, Introduction of lattices,
Properties of lattices – Bounded, Complemented, Modular and Complete
lattice.
Graphs: Definition and terminology, Representation of graphs, Multigraphs,
Bipartite graphs, Planar graphs, Isomorphism and Homeomorphism of
graphs, Euler and Hamiltonian paths, Graph coloring
Trees: Definition, Binary tree, Binary tree traversal (BFS and DFS), Binary
search tree.

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 Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology, Greater
Noida

Course Contents / Syllabus

UNIT-3 Algebraic Structures, Rings and Fields 8 hours

Algebraic Structures: Introduction to algebraic Structures and properties.

Types of algebraic structures: Semi group, Monoid, Group, Abelian group
and Properties of group. Subgroup, Cyclic group, Cosets, Permutation and
Symmetric groups, Homomorphism and Isomorphism of groups.

Numerical Differentiation and Integration: Introduction, Numerical

Differentiation, Numerical Integration, Trapezoidal rule, Simpson’s rules

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 Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology, Greater
Noida

Course Contents / Syllabus

UNIT-4 Propositional & Predicate Logic 8 hours

Propositional & Predicate Logic: Propositions well formed formula, Truth

tables, Tautology, Contradiction, Algebra of propositions, Theory of
Inference and Natural Deduction.

Frequency :Chart Different frequency chart like Histogram, Frequency

curve, Pi-chart.

Regression analysis: Linear and Non-linear regression, Multiple regressions.

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 Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology, Greater
Noida
Course Contents / Syllabus
UNIT 5 Recurrence Relations & Combinatorics 8 hours

Recurrence Relations and Generating Function: Introduction and

properties of Generating Function, Growth of functions, Recurrences from
algorithms, Simple Recurrence relation with constant coefficients and Linear
recurrence relation without constant coefficients. Methods of solving
recurrences
Combinatorics: Introduction, Counting Techniques, Pigeonhole Principle,
Pólya’s Counting Theory.
Testing of Hypothesis: Test of significance, Chi-square test, t-test, F-Test
Application to medicine, agriculture etc
Time series and forecasting: Moving averages, smoothening of curves,
forecasting models and methods

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 Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology, Greater
Noida

Text Books :
1. Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications, Kenneth H. Rosen,
McGraw-Hill, 2006.
2. Discrete Mathematical Structures, B. Kolman, R. C. Busby, and S. C.
Ross, Prentice Hall, 2004.
3. Koshy, Discrete Structures, Elsevier Pub. 2008 Kenneth H. Rosen,
Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications, 6/e, McGraw-Hill, 2006.
Reference :
1. Discrete and Combinatorial Mathematics, R.P. Grimaldi, Addison
Wesley, 2004.
2. Discrete Mathematical Structures, Y N Singh, Wiley-India, First Edition,
2010.
3. Grewal B. S., “Numerical methods in Engineering and Science”,
Khanna Publishers, Delhi, 43rd Edition 2015.
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 Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology, Greater
Noida

Online Link :
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9AUCdsmBGmA&list=PL0862D1A947
252D20&index=10

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oU60TuGHxe0&list=PL0862D1A94725
2D20&index=11

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_BIKq9Xo_5A&list=PL0862D1A94725
2D20&index=13

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gs0dQF3pGqM&list=PLmXKhU9FNes
TpQNP_OpXN7WaPwGx7NWsq

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yk6-ZBb9vh4
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 Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology, Greater
Noida

Course code AMCA0105 L T P Credits

Course title Discrete Mathematics 3 00 3

Course Objective
To develop mathematical ability in understanding mathematical
1 reasoning, ability to perform combinatorial analysis and
knowledge about discrete structures.
2 Perform operations on discrete mathematics such as sets,
functions and relations.
3 Verify the correctness of an argument using symbolic logic and
truth tables.
4 Solve problems using counting techniques and Combinatorics.
5 To improve formal reasoning skills acquisition and
mathematical knowledge.
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Course Outcome: At the end of course , the student will be able to:
CO1 Use mathematical and logical notation to define and formally reason about K1,K2
basic discrete structures such as Sets, Relations, Functions and Induction.

Apply mathematical arguments using logical connectives and quantifiers to

CO2 check the validity of an argument through truth tables and propositional and K1,K4
predicate logic.

CO3 Identify and prove properties of Algebraic Structures like Groups, Rings and K3
Fields

CO4 Apply the concept of Combinatorics to solve basic problems in discrete K2

mathematics

CO5 Formulate and solve recurrences and recursive functions K2,K4

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 Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology, Greater
Noida

Program Outcomes
Program outcomes examine what a • Computational Knowledge
program or process is to do, achieve, • Problem Analysis
or accomplish for its own • Design /Development of Solutions
improvement and/or in support of • Conduct investigations of complex
institutional or divisional goals: Computing problems
generally numbers, needs, or • Modern Tool Usage
satisfaction driven. They can address
• Professional Ethics
quality, quantity, fiscal sustainability,
• Life-long Learning
facilities and infrastructure, or
• Project management and finance
growth.
• Communication Efficacy
• Societal and Environmental
Concern
• Individual and Team Work
• Innovation and Entrepreneurship

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 Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology, Greater
Noida

PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES(PEO)

PEO 1: To produce successful post graduates for industry, government,

academia and PEO and research for lifelong learning to fulfill their goals .

PEO 2: To develop ethical leaders with strong communication ability

who will excel as individual and team in a society.

PEO 3: To produce successful innovative professional with computing

and analytical ability to design and develop system with entrepreneurial
aptitude.

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 CO-PO Mapping
PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
3 3 2 3 2 2 2 2
CO 1

3 3 2 3 3 2 2 2
CO 2

3 3 3 3 2 3 2 2 2
CO 3

3 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 2
CO 4

3 3 3 2 2 2 3 2
CO 5

Scale H- High (3), M-Medium (2), L- Low (1)

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 CO-PEO Mapping
PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

3 3 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2
PEO 1

3 3 2 3 2 3 3 2 2 2
PEO 2

3 3 3 3 2 3 2 2 2 2
PEO 3

Scale H- High (3), M-Medium (2), L- Low (1)

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 Content
• Course Objective  Objective of Relation and
• Course Outcome function
 Transitive Relations
• CO-PO Mapping
 Equivalence Relations
• Prerequisite and Recap  One-to-one functions
• Set theory  Onto functions
• Objective of a set theory  Inverse functions
• Power Sets  Mathematical Induction
 Video Lectures Link
• Partition  Quiz
• Universal Set  Weekly Assignment
• Prerequisite and Recap of  MCQs
Relation and Function  Old Question Paper
• Objective of Relation and  Expected Question for Exam
function  Summary
 References
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 Result Analysis

Year Percentage
2020-21 97%
2019-20 100%
2018-19 100%

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 Prerequisite and Recap

• Basic Understanding of mathematics

• Understand the concept of function and relation and their similarity
and difference
• Venn diagram
• Set and its representation

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 Objective of a set theory(CO1)

• Understand and use the terms cardinality, finite, countable infinite,

and uncountable infinite, and determine which of these
characteristics is associated with a given set

• Prove that a proposed statement involving sets is true, or give a

counterexample to show that it is false. In particular, be able to
prove that a set is empty

• Use set notation, including the notations for subsets, unions,

intersections, differences, complements, cross (Cartesian) products,
and power sets.

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 What is a set?

• Sets are used to define the concepts of relations and functions. The
study of geometry, sequences, probability, etc. requires the
knowledge of sets.
• ‘The theory of sets was developed by German mathematician Georg
Cantor (1845-1918).
• He first encountered sets while working on “problems on
trigonometric series”.
• Studying sets helps us categorize information. It allows us to make
sense of a large amount of information by breaking it down into
smaller groups

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 Definition of set
• Set is a well defined un-ordered collection of elements
• In other words A set is a collection of objects.
• These objects are called elements or members of the set.
• The symbol for element is .
• For example, if you define the set as all the fruit found in my
refrigerator, then apple and orange would be elements or members
of that set.
• The following points are noted while writing a set.
• Sets are usually denoted by capital letters A, B, S, etc.
• The elements of a set are usually denoted by small letters a, b, t,
u, etc
• Examples: A = {a, b, d, 2, 4}
• B = {math, religion, literature, computer science}

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 Sets
Other ways to denote sets
• Ellipses
• N = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4. . .} (set of natural numbers)
• Z = {. . ., -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3,. . .} (set of integers)
• E = {0, 2, 4, 6. . .} (set of even natural numbers)

Sets can be well defined.

A well defined set is a set whose contents are clearly determined. The
set defined as “colors” would not be well defined while “the set of
colors in a standard box of eight crayons” is well defined.

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 Representation of sets
There are three methods used to indicate a set:
1. Description 2. Roster form 3. Set-builder notation
1. Description : Description means just that, words describing what is
included in a set.
For example, Set M is the set of months that start with the letter J.
2. Roster Form : Roster form lists all of the elements in the set within
braces {element 1, element 2, …}.
For example, Set M = { January, June, July}
3. Set-Builder Notation: Set-builder notation is frequently used in
algebra. For example, M = { x x is a month of the year and x
starts with the letter J} This is read, “Set M is the set of all the
elements x such that x is a month of the year and x starts with the
letter J”.

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 Types of sets

1. Subsets : A is a subset of B if every element of A is also contained

in B.
This is written A B.
For example, the set of integers { …-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …} is a
subset of the set of real numbers.
Formal Definition: A  B means “if x A, then x B.”
2. Empty set
Set with no elements
{ } or Ø

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 Set size

• Set size called cardinality

• Number of elements in set
• Denoted |A| is the size of set A
• If A = {2,3,5,7,8}, then |A| = 5
• If a set A has a finite number of elements, it is a finite set.
• A set which is not finite is infinite

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 Set Relations

•  - "is a member of"

– xA
•  - "subset"
– A  B A is a subset of B
• Every element in A is also in B
– x: x A x B
•  - "superset"
• A  B A is a superset of B
• Every element in B is also in A
• x: x B x A

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 Set Relations

 - "proper subset“
A  B - A is a proper subset of B (A ≠B)
Every element in A is also in B and
A≠B
( x: x  B x  A) ˄ A ≠ B

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 Numbers and Set
• There are different types of numbers:
• Cardinal numbers - answer the question “How many?”
• Ordinal numbers - such as first, second, third. . .
• Nominal numbers – which are used to name things. Examples of
nominal numbers would be your driver’s license number or your
student ID number.
• The cardinal number of a set S, symbolized as n(S), is the number of
elements in set S.
• If S = { blue, red, green, yellow } then n(S) = 4.
• Two sets are considered equal sets if they contain exactly the same
elements.
• Two sets are considered equivalent sets if they contain the same
number of elements ( if n(A) = n(B) ).

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 Numbers and Set

• If E = { 1 , 2 , 3 } and F = { 3 , 2 , 1 }, then the sets are equal (since

they have the same elements), and equivalent (since they both have
3 elements).
• If G = { cat , dog , horse , fish } and H = { 2 , 5 , 7 , 9 }, then the
sets are not equal (since they do not have the same elements), but
they are equivalent (since they both have 4 elements, n(G) = n(H) ).

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 Power Sets
• Given any set, we can form a set of all possible subsets.
• This set is called the power set.
• Notation: power set or set A denoted as P(A) Ex: Let A = {a}

– P(A) = {Ø, {a}}

• Let A = {a, b}
– P(A) = {Ø, {a}, {b}, { a, b}}
• Let B = {1, 2, 3} P(B)={Ø,{1},{2},{3},{1,2},{1,3} ,{2,3},{1,2,3}

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 Set Operators
• Union of two sets A and B is the set of all elements in either set A
or B.
– Written A ∪ B.
– A ∪ B = {x | x A or x B}
• Intersection of two sets A and B is the set of all elements in both
sets A or B.
– Written A ∩ B.
– A ∩ B = {x | x  A and x  B}
• Difference of two sets A and B is the set of all elements in set A
which are not in set B.
– – Written A - B. – A - B = {x | x  A and x  B}
– – also called relative complement

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 Set Operators
• Complement of a set is the set of all elements not in the set.
– Written Ac
– Need a universe of elements to draw from.
– Set U is usually called the universal set.
– Ac = {x | x U - A }
• Sets with no common elements are called disjoint – If A ∩ B = Ø,
then A and B are disjoint.
• If A1 , A2 , . . . An are sets, and no two have a common element,
then we say they are mutually disjoint.
• – Ai ∪ Aj = Ø for all i,j <=n and i≠ j
• – Consider Md = {x | x  MVNC students, d  MVNC dorm
rooms} – Consider Mn = {x  I | (x MOD 5) = n}

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 Partition
• A collection of disjoint sets which collectively
– Make up a larger set.
– Ex: Let A = {a,b}; B = {c,d,e}; C = {f,g} and  D =
{a,b,c,d,e,f,g}
– Then sets A,B,C form a partition of set D
• Let A be a nonempty set (A Ø), and suppose that B1 , B2 , B3 , . . .,
Bn are subsets of A, such that:
– None of sets B1 , B2 , B3 , . . ., Bn are empty;
– The sets B1 , B2 , B3 , . . ., Bn are mutually disjoint. (They
have no elements in common)
– The union of sets B1 , B2 , B3 , . . ., Bn is equal to A. e.g. B1 ∪
B2 ∪ B3 ∪ . . . ∪ Bn = A

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 Partition

• Then we say the sets B1 , B2 , B3 , . . ., Bn form a partition of the

set A.
• The subsets B1 , B2 , B3 , . . ., Bn are called blocks of the partition.

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 Universal Set
• A universal set is the super set of all sets under consideration and is
denoted by U.
• Example: If we consider the sets A, B and C as the cricketers of
India, Australia and England respectively, then we can say that the
universal set (U) of these sets contains all the cricketers of the
world.
• The union of two sets A and B is the set which contains all those
elements which
• are only in A, only in B and in both A and B, and this set is denoted
by “A ∪ B”.
• A ∪ B {x : x A or x B}
• Example: If A = {a, 1, x, p} and B = {p, q, 2, x}, then
• A ∪ B = {a, p, q, x, 1, 2}.

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 Cartesian Product
• Ordered pairs - A list of elements in which the order is significant.
• Order is not significant for sets!
• Notation: use round brackets. {a,b} = {b,a} but (a,b)≠ (b,a)
• Cartesian Product: Given two sets A and B, the set of
– all ordered pairs of the form (a , b) where a is any
– element of A and b any element of B, is called the
– Cartesian product of A and B.
– Denoted as A x B • A x B = {(a,b) | a A and b B}
– Ex: Let A = {1,2,3}; B = {x,y}
– A x B = {(1,x),(1,y),(2,x),(2,y),(3,x),(3,y)}
– B x A = {(x,1),(y,1),(x,2),(y,2),(x,3),(y,3)}
– B x B = B2 = {(x,x),(x,y),(y,x),(y,y)}

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 Properties of sets

1. Commutative Laws:
For any two finite sets A and B;
(i) A U B = B U A
(ii) A ∩ B = B ∩ A
2. Associative Laws:
For any three finite sets A, B and C;
(i) (A U B) U C = A U (B U C)
(ii) (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C)

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 Properties of sets
3. Idempotent Laws:
For any finite set A;
(i) A U A = A
(ii) A ∩ A = A
4. Distributive Laws:
For any three finite sets A, B and C;
(i) A U (B ∩ C) = (A U B) ∩ (A U C)
(ii) A ∩ (B U C) = (A ∩ B) U (A ∩ C)

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 Properties of sets

5. De Morgan’s Laws:
For any two finite sets A and B;
(i) A – (B U C) = (A – B) ∩ (A – C)
(ii) A - (B ∩ C) = (A – B) U (A – C)
De Morgan’s Laws can also we written as:
(i) (A U B)’ = A' ∩ B'
(ii) (A ∩ B)’ = A' U B'

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 Properties of sets
• This table shows the average
lifetime and maximum lifetime
for some animals. Average Maximum
• The data can also be Animal Lifetime Lifetime
represented as ordered pairs. (years)
(years)
• The ordered pairs for the data
are(12, 28), (15, 30), (8, 20), Cat 12 28
(12, 20), and (12, 20),
Cow 15 30
• The first number in each
ordered pair is the average
Deer 8 20
lifetime, and the second
• number is the maximum Dog 12 20
lifetime.
Horse 20 50

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 Prerequisite and Recap of Relation and
Function
• Student understand the concept of Venn diagram and its used in real
life to solve a problem.

• Student understand different types of sets as like infinite, finite, null,

singleton, equal, and equivalent sets.

• Whenever sets are being discussed, the relationship between these

two elements of the sets is the next thing that comes up to equivalent
and equal sets.

• Student understand different types of function and it can be relate to

set theory.

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 Objective of Relation and Function(CO1)

• To introduce relation, show their connection to sets and their use in

databases.

• Understand to the student to find a composition and inverse

function.

• Understand to the student various relation as like reflexive,

symmetric and transitive

• Understand to the student differences and similarity of function and

relation.

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 BINARY RELATION

• Definition: Let A and B be sets. A binary relation R from A to B is a

subset of the Cartesian product AB.
• Notation: xRy means (x,y)R, and
x is said to be related to y under R.
xRy denotes (x,y)R.
Example:
Let A be the set of all cities, and let B be the set of all states in the U.S.
Define the relation R from A to B by:
(a,b)R if city a is in state b.

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 Another Example

A= {a, b, c, d } B = {1, 2, 3}
a
R = {(a,2), (b,1), (b, 2), (c,3), (d,2)}.

b 1
c 2
d 3
Is this relation a function?
R 1 2 3
a X
b x X
c x
d x
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 Functions and Relations
• Recall that: Let f: A → B be a function. The graph of f is the set of
ordered pairs
Gf = {(x, f (x)) | x  A}.

• The graph of a function from A to B is a relation from A to B.

• Conversely, if R is a relation from A to B such that every element in
A is the first element of exactly one ordered pair of R, then a
function can be defined with R as its graph.

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 Relations on a Set

Definition: A relation on a set A is a relation from A to A, that is, a

subset of AxA.
Example: Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, and
R = {(a,b) | a evenly divides b}.
What are the elements of R?
R = {(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (1,4),
(2,2), (2,4), (3,3), (4,4)}

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 Relations on a Set…

Let A be a set with n elements. How many distinct relations are there
on A?
Answer: The number of relations is the same as the number of subsets
of AxA. There are n2 elements in AxA. Thus, P(AxA), the power
set of AxA, has 2n2 elements. Therefore, there are 2 n2 relations on a
set with n elements.

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 Types of Relations
• Definition: A relation R on a set A is called reflexive if (a,a)R for
every element a  A, that is,

• Definition: A relation R on a set A is called irreflexive if (a,a)  R

for every element a  A, that is,

• Note that a relation can be both not reflexive and not irreflexive.

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 Example
• Consider the following relations on {1,2,3,4}. Which are reflexive,
irreflexive, neither?
– R1 = {(1,1), (1,2), (2,1), (2,2), (3,3), (4,4)}
• Reflexive
– R2 = {(2,4), (4,2)}
• Irreflexive
– R3 = {(1,2), (2,3), (3,4)}
• Irreflexive
– R4 = {(1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (4,4)}
• Reflexive

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 Example

– R5 = {(1,3), (1,4), (2,3), (2,4), (3,1), (3,4)}

• Irreflexive
– R6 = {(2,2), (2,3), (2,4), (3,2), (3,3), (3,4)}
• Neither

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 Symmetric Relations
• Definition: A relation R on a set A is called symmetric if (b,a)R
whenever (a,b)R for a, b  A, that is,

ab( a  A  b  A  aRb  bRa )

• Definition A relation R on a set A is called anti symmetric if
whenever (a,b)R and (b,a)R, then
a = b, for a, b in A, that is,

ab( a  A  b  A  aRb  bRa  a b)

• Note that these definitions are not complementary.
– Give a relation that is both symmetric and ant symmetric.
– Give a relation that is neither symmetric not anti symmetric.

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 Example

• Consider the following relations on {1,2,3,4}. Which are symmetric,

anti symmetric, both, or neither?
– R1 = {(1,1), (1,2), (2,1), (2,2), (3,3), (4,4)} Symmetric
– R2 = {(2,4), (4,2)} Symmetric
– R3 = {(1,2), (2,3), (3,4)} Anti symmetric
– R4 = {(1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (4,4)} Both
– R5 = {(1,3), (1,4), (2,3), (2,4), (3,1), (3,4)} Neither
– The “divides” relation on the set of positive integers
• Anti symmetric
– R6 = {(2,2), (2,3), (2,4), (3,2), (3,3), (3,4)} Neither

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 Transitive Relations

• Definition: A relation R on a set A is called transitive if whenever

(a,b)R and (b,c)R, then (a,c)R, for a, b, c in A, that is,

abc(a  A  b  A  c  A  aRb  bRc  aRc )

• Is the “football team relationship” transitive?

• A defeats B and B defeats C implies A defeats C ?
• Is the “subclass” relation on classes in an OO program transitive?

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 Example

• Consider the following relations on {1,2,3,4}. Which are transitive?

– R1 = {(2,2), (2,3), (2,4), (3,2), (3,3), (3,4)} Transitive
– R2 = {(1,1), (1,2), (2,1), (2,2), (3,3), (4,4)} Transitive
– R3 = {(2,4), (4,2)} Not Transitive
– R4 = {(1,2), (2,3), (3,4)} Not Transitive
– R5 = {(1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (4,4)} Transitive
– R6 = {(1,3), (1,4), (2,3), (2,4), (3,1), (3,4)} Not Transitive
– The “divides” relation on the set of positive integers
• Transitive

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 Pictorial Representation of Binary
Relations on a Finite Set
• Directed Graphs
– Vertices, one for each element in the set
– Arcs, one for each ordered-pair in the relation
• Example: Set S = {1,2,3,4} and relation R on S
R = {(2,2), (2,3), (2,4), (3,2), (3,3), (3,4)}

2
1

3
4

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 Boolean matrix representation of binary
relations on a finite set
• Recall: If R is a binary relation over set S
– Order the elements of S = { x1, x2, …, xn }
– Represent by matrix with a 1 in position (i, j) iff xiRxj

• Example: Set S = {1,2,3,4} and relation R on S

R = {(2,2), (2,3), (2,4), (3,2), (3,3), (3,4)}

0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1
0 1 1 1
0 0 0 0

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 Equivalence Relations

• A relation R on a set A is called an equivalence relation if it is

reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
• In such a relation, for each element a  A, the set of all elements
related to a under R is called the equivalence class of a, and is
denoted by [a].

[a] = { (a,b) | a  A  b  A  aRb }

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 Example
• Determine the properties of each of the following relations defined
on the set of all real numbers R:
– R = {(x,y) | x + y = 0}
– R = {(x,y) | x = y  x = – y}
– R = {(x,y) | x – y is a rational number}
– R = {(x,y) | x = 2y}
– R = {(x,y) | x y ≥ 0}
– R = {(x,y) | x y = 0}
– R = {(x,y) | x = 1}
– R = {(x,y) | x = 1 or y = 1}

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 R = {(x,y) | x + y = 0}
• Solution:
– It is not reflexive since, for example, (1,1)  R.
– It is not ir reflexive since, for example, (0,0)  R.
– Since x + y = y + x, it follows that if x + y = 0 then y + x = 0, so
the relation is symmetric.
– It is not anti symmetric since, for example, (–1,1) and
(1, –1) are both in R, but 1 ≠ –1
– The relation is not transitive since, for example,
(1,–1) R and (–1,1) R, but (1,1)  R.

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 R = {(x,y) | x = y  x = – y}

• Solution:
– Since for each x, xRx then it is reflexive.
– Since it is reflexive, it is not ir reflexive.
– Since x = ±y if and only if y = ±x, then it is symmetric.
– It is not anti symmetric since, for example, (1,–1)
and (–1,1) are both in R but 1 ≠ –1
– It is also transitive because essentially the product of ±1 and ±1
is ±1.

– https://niet.instituteoncloud.com/

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 R = {(x,y) | x – y is a rational number}
• Solution:
– It is reflexive since, for all x, x – x = 0 is a rational number.
– Since it is reflexive, it is not ir reflexive.
– It is symmetric because, if x – y is rational, then – (x – y) = y – x
is also.
– It is not anti symmetric because, for example, (1, –1) and (– 1,1)
are both in R but 1 ≠ –1.
– It is transitive because if x – y is a rational and y – z is a
rational, so is x – y + y – z = x – z.

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 R = {(x,y) | x = 2y}

• Solution:
– It is not reflexive since, for example, (1,1)  R.
– It is not irreflexive since, for example, (0,0)  R.
– It is not symmetric since, for example, (2,1)  R
but (1,2)  R.
– It is antisymmetric because x = y =0 is the only time that (x,y)
and (y,x) are both in R.
– It is not transitive since, for example, (4,2)  R and (2,1)  R but
(4,1)  R.

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 R = {(x,y) | x = 1}
• Solution:
– It is not reflexive since (2,2)  R.
– It is not irreflexive since (1,1)  R.
– It is not symmetric since, for example, (1,2)  R but (2,1)  R.
– It is antisymmetric because if (x,y)  R and (y,x)  R it means x
= y = 1.
– It is transitive since if (1,y)  R and (y,z)  R, so is (1,z)  R .

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 Summary

Relation R IR S A T E

R = {(x,y) | x + y = 0} ✓
R = {(x,y) | x = ±y} ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
{(x,y) | x – y is a rational number} ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

R = {(x,y) | x = 2y} ✓
R = {(x,y) | x y ≥ 0} ✓ ✓
R = {(x,y) | x y = 0} ✓
R = {(x,y) | x = 1} ✓ ✓
R = {(x,y) | x = 1 or y = 1} ✓

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 Combining Relations

• Since relations are special kind of sets, all of the operators we used
for combining sets could be used to combine relations.

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 Combining Relations – Examples

• Let A={1, 2, 3} and B={1, 2, 3, 4}

• Let R1 and R2 be relations from A to B
– R1 = {(1,1), (2,2), (3,3)}
– R2 = {(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (1,4)}
– R1  R2 = {(1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (1,2), (1,3), (1,4)}
– R1  R2 = {(1,1)}
– R1  R2 = {(2,2), (3,3)}

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 Composition of Relations
• Definition: Let R be a relation from a set A to a set B, and S be a
relation from B to a set C. The composition of R and S, denoted by S
o R, is the relation consisting of ordered pairs (a,c), where:
– aA, cC, and
– bB | (a,b)R and (b,c)S.

SoR

R S

A B c

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 Example
• Let A={1, 2, 3}, B={x, y, w, z}, C={0, 1, 2},
R a relation from A to B:
– R = {(1, x), (1, z), (2, w), (3, x), (3, z)}, and
S a relation from B to C:
– S = {(x,0), (y,0), (w,1), (w,2), (z,1)}
• What is S o R?
– S o R = {(1,0), (1,1), (2,1), (2,2), (3,0), (3,1)}

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 Powers of Relations
• Definition: Let R be a relation on the set A. The powers Rn, n = 1, 2,
3,… are defined recursively by:
– R1 = R,
– Rn+1=Rn o R, for n  1.
– So:
• R2 = RoR,
• R3 = R2oR = (RoR) o R…

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 Rn+1
• In the digraph representation, Rn consists of all the order pairs (x,y)
where y is reachable from x using a directed path of length n.

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 Example

• Consider the following relations on {1,2,3,4}.

– R = {(1,2), (1,3), (3,4)}
– Is R transitive? No
– Find R2=R o R R2 = {(1,4)}
• Consider the following relation:
– R = {(2,2), (2,3), (2,4), (3,2), (3,3), (3,4)}
– Is R transitive? Yes
– Find R2=R o R R2 = {(2,2), (2,3), (2,4), (3,2), (3,3), (3,4)}

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 Definition of a function
• A function takes an element from a set and maps it to a UNIQUE
element in another set

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 More functions

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 Example

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 One-to-one functions
• A function is one-to-one if each element in the co-domain has a
unique pre-image
• Formal definition: A function f is one-to-one if f(x) = f(y) implies x
= y.

a 1 a 1
e 2 e 2
i 3 i 3
o 4 o 4
5 5

A one-to-one function A function that is

not one-to-one

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 More on one-to-one

• Injective is synonymous with one-to-one

– “A function is injective”
• A function is an injection if it is one-to-one
• Note that there can a 1
be un-used elements
e 2
in the co-domain
i 3
o 4
5

A one-to-one function

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 Onto functions
• A function is onto if each element in the co-domain is an image of
some pre-image
• Formal definition: A function f is onto if for all y  C, there exists x
 D such that f(x)=y. i.e co-domain= range

a 1 a 1
e 2 e 2
i 3 i 3
o 4 o 4
u 5

An onto function A function that

is not onto
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 More on onto

• Surjective is synonymous with onto

– “A function is surjective”
• A function is an surjection if it is onto
• Note that there can
be multiply used
elements in the
co-domain
a 1
e 2
i 3
o 4
u

An onto function

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 Bijection

• Consider a function that is

both one-to-one and onto:
• Such a function is a one-to-one correspondence, or a bijection

a 1
b 2
c 3
d 4

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 Identity functions

• A function such that the image and the pre-image are ALWAYS
equal

• f(x) = 1*x
• f(x) = x + 0

• The domain and the co-domain must be the same set

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 Inverse functions

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 More on inverse functions

• Can we define the inverse of the following functions?

a 1
a 1
b 2
b 2
c 3
c 3
d
4

What is f-1(2)? What is f-1(2)?

Not onto! Not 1-to-1!

• An inverse function can ONLY be done defined on a bijection

• If a function f is bijective (f: A to B) the function g: B to A is called
inverse of function f.

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 Compositions of functions

(f ○ g)(x) = f(g(x))

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 Compositions of functions

f(g(x)) = 2(3x+2)+3 = 6x+7

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 Compositions of functions

Does f(g(x)) = g(f(x))?

Let f(x) = 2x+3 Let g(x) = 3x+2

f(g(x)) = 2(3x+2)+3 = 6x+7

g(f(x)) = 3(2x+3)+2 = 6x+11
Not equal!
Function composition is not commutative!

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 Example

– R5 = {(1,3), (1,4), (2,3), (2,4), (3,1), (3,4)}

• Irreflexive
– R6 = {(2,2), (2,3), (2,4), (3,2), (3,3), (3,4)}
• Neither

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 Transitive Relations

• Consider the following relations on {1,2,3,4}. Which are symmetric,

antisymmetric, both, or neither?
– R1 = {(1,1), (1,2), (2,1), (2,2), (3,3), (4,4)} Symmetric
– R2 = {(2,4), (4,2)} Symmetric
– R3 = {(1,2), (2,3), (3,4)} Asymmetric
– R4 = {(1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (4,4)} Both
– R5 = {(1,3), (1,4), (2,3), (2,4), (3,1), (3,4)} Neither
– The “divides” relation on the set of positive integers
Antisymmetric
– R6 = {(2,2), (2,3), (2,4), (3,2), (3,3), (3,4)} Neither

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 Prerequisite and Recap of Mathematical
Induction
• Student is understand these use the terms function, domain, co
domain, range, image, and composition

• Student is understand to one-to-one functions (injections), onto

functions (surjections), and one-to-one correspondences
(bijections). Determine which of these characteristics is associated
with a given function.

• Student is understand a big-O estimate of growth for a given

function.

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 Objective of Mathematical Induction

• To understand the Principle of Mathematical Induction.

• To apply the Principle of Mathematical Induction to prove

propositions involving integers.

• To be able to modify the Principle of Mathematical Induction to suit

different purposes.

• Construct induction proofs involving summations, inequalities, and

divisibility arguments.

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 Mathematical Induction

• There is a given statement P(n) involving the natural number n such

that
• The statement is true for n=1, i.e., P(1) is true, and
• If the statement is true for n=k (where k is some positive integer
), then the statement is also true for n=k+1 , i.e., truth of P(k)
implies the truth of P(k+1).
• Then, P(n) is true for all natural numbers n.

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 Mathematical Induction

Principle of Mathematical Induction

Consider a statement P(n), where n is a natural number. Then to determine the

validity of P(n) for every n, use the following principle:

Step 1: Check whether the given statement is true for n = 1

.
Step 2: Assume that given statement P(n) is also true for n = k, where k is any
positive integer.

Step 3: Prove that the result is true for P(k+1) for any positive integer k.
If the above-mentioned conditions are satisfied, then it can be concluded that P(n)
is true for all n natural numbers.

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 Type 1 questions

Q1.For all n ≥ 1, prove that 1²+2²+3²+4²+……..+n²= n(n+1)(2n+1)/6

Ans:Let the given statement be P(n)
P(n):1²+2²+3²+4²+……+n²= n(n+1)(2n+1)/6

P(1)≣1=1(1+1)(2×1+1)/6=1×2×3/6=1 which is
For n=1,

true
therefore, P(n) is true. Where n = 1
Assume that P(k) is true for some positive integer
k ,i.e.,
1²+2²+3²+4²+……..+k²=k(k+1)(2k+1)/6 --------[1]

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 Transitive Relations

We shall now prove that P(k+1) is also true.

Now we have, (1²+2²+3²+4²+……..+k²)+(k+1)²
= k(k+1)(2k+1)/6+(k+1)² {Using[1]}
= k(k+1)(2k+1)+6(k+1)²/6
= (k+1)(2k+7k+6)/6
= (k+1)(k+1+1){2(k+1)+1}/6
Thus P(k+1) is true, wherever P(k) is true.
Hence, from the principle of mathematical induction , the statement is
true for all natural number n.

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 Transitive Relations

Q2. Prove the following by using the principle of mathematical

induction for all n ε N 1.2.3+2.3.4+……..+n(n+1)(n+2)=
n(n+1)(n+2)(n+3)/4
Ans : Let the given statement be P(n)
P(n)=1.2.3+2.3.4+………..+n(n+1)(n+2)= n(n+1)(n+2)(n+3)/4

P(1)≣ 1.2.3= 1(1+1)(1+2)(1+3)/4

For n=1

6 = 1×2×3×4/4
6 = 24/4=6 which is true.
therefore, P(n) is true, where n=1
Assume that P(k) is true for some positive integer k

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 Transitive Relations

=1.2.3+2.3.4+………+k(k+1)(k+2)=k(k+1)(k+2)(k+3)/4
-------------------[1]
We shall now prove that P(k+1) is also true
Now we have,
=1.2.3+2.3.4+………..+(k+1)(k+1+1)(k+1+2)
= k(k+1)(k+2)(k+3)/4 + (k+1)(k+2)(k+3)
= k(k+1)(k+2)(k+3) + 4(k+1)(k+2)(k+3)/4
= (k+1)(k+2)(k+3)(k+4)/4
Thus P(k+1) is true, whenever P(k) is true
Hence, from the principle of mathematical induction, the statement P(n)
is true for all natural numbers n.

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 Type 2 Question

Q3 . For every positive integer n, prove that 7ⁿ- 3ⁿ is divisible by 4

Ans: We can write
P(n): 7ⁿ+3ⁿ is divisible by 4
We note that
P(1): 7¹-3¹ = 4 which is divisible by 4.
Thus P(n) is true for n=1
Let P(k) be true for some natural number k i.e., P(k) : 7ᵏ-3ᵏ is
divisible by 4.
We can write 7ᵏ-3ᵏ = 4d, where d ε N.

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 Transitive Relations

Now we wish to prove that P(k+1) is true whenever P(k) is true.

Now, =7⁽ᵏ⁺¹⁾-3⁽ᵏ⁺¹⁾=7⁽ᵏ⁺¹⁾-7.3ᵏ+7.3ᵏ-3⁽ᵏ⁺¹⁾
=7(7ᵏ-3ᵏ)+(7-3)3ᵏ
=7(4d)+(7-3)3ᵏ
=7(4d) +4.3ᵏ
=4(7d+3ᵏ)
From the last line, we see that 7⁽ᵏ⁺¹⁾-3⁽ᵏ⁺¹⁾ is divisible by 4. Thus
P(k+1) is true when P(k)is true. Therefore, by principle of
mathematical induction the statement P(n) is true for every positive
integer n.

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 Transitive Relations

We shall now prove that P(k+1) is also true.

Now we have, (1²+2²+3²+4²+……..+k²)+(k+1)²
= k(k+1)(2k+1)/6+(k+1)² {Using[1]}
= k(k+1)(2k+1)+6(k+1)²/6
= (k+1)(2k+7k+6)/6
= (k+1)(k+1+1){2(k+1)+1}/6
Thus P(k+1) is true, wherever P(k) is true.
Hence, from the principle of mathematical induction , the statement is
true for all natural number n.

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 Peano axioms

There are five Peano axioms, which are described as follows:

• Zero is a natural number.
• In the natural number, there is a successor for every natural
number.
• The successor of any natural number cannot be zero.
• The two original numbers will be the same if two natural
numbers contain the same successor.
• The set will be contained the natural numbers if there is 0 in a
set, and the successor of every number is also in the set.

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 Peano axioms

Question: Prove that the sum of cubes of n natural numbers is equal to ( (n+1) 2)2 for
all n natural numbers.

Solution:

In the given statement we are asked to prove:

13+23+33+⋯+n3 = (n(n+1)2)2

Step 1: Now with the help of the principle of induction in math let us check the validity
of the given statement P(n) for n=1.

P(1)=(1(1+1)2)2 = 1 This is true.

Step 2: Now as the given statement is true for n=1 we shall move forward and try
proving this for n=k, i.e.,

13+23+33+⋯+k3= (k(k+1)2)2 .

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 Mathematical Induction

Step 3: Let us now try to establish that P(k+1) is also true.

13+23+33+⋯+k3+(k+1)3 = (k(k+1)2)2+(k+1)3
⇒13+23+33+⋯+k3+(k+1)3=k2(k+1)4+(k+1)3
= k2(k+1)2+4((k+1)3)4
=(k+1)2(k2+4(k+1))4
=(k+1)2(k2+4k+4)4
= (k+1)2((k+2)2)4
=(k+1)2(k+1+1)2)4
=(k+1)2((k+1)+1)2)4

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Question: Show that 1 + 3 + 5 + … + (2n−1) = n2

Solution:

Step 1: Result is true for n = 1

That is 1 = (1)2 (True)

Step 2: Assume that result is true for n = k

1 + 3 + 5 + … + (2k−1) = k2

Step 3: Check for n = k + 1

i.e. 1 + 3 + 5 + … + (2(k+1)−1) = (k+1)2

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We can write the above equation as,
1 + 3 + 5 + … + (2k−1) + (2(k+1)−1) = (k+1)2

Using step 2 result, we get

k2 + (2(k+1)−1) = (k+1)2
k2 + 2k + 2 −1 = (k+1)2
k2 + 2k + 1 = (k+1)2
(k+1)2 = (k+1)2
L.H.S. and R.H.S. are same.

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So the result is true for n = k+1

By mathematical induction, the statement is true.

We see that the given statement is also true for n=k+1. Hence we can say
that by the principle of mathematical induction this statement is valid for all
natural numbers n.

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 Faculty Video Links, Youtube & NPTEL
Video Links and Online Courses Details
• Youtube/other Video Links
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9AUDMsmBGmA&list=PL086
2D1A947252D20&index=10
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oU60TuGHxe0&list=PL0862D
1A947252D20&index=11
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7k4Di5u-oUU&list=PL0862D1
A947252D20&index=12
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_BIKq9Xo_5A&list=PL0862D
1A947252D20&index=13
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gs0dQF3pGqM&list=PLmXKh
U9FNesTpQNP_OpXN7WaPwGx7NWsq
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yk6-ZBb9vh4

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 Daily Quiz

Q1 The number of elements in the Power set P(S) of the set

S = [ [ Φ] , 1, [ 2, 3 ]] is
(a) 2 (b) 4 (c) 8 (d) None of these
Q2 If A and B are sets and A∪ B= A ∩ B, then
(a)A = Φ (b)B = Φ (c) A = B (d) none of these
Q3 Let S be an infinite set and S1, S2, S3, ..., Sn be sets such that
S1 ∪S2 ∪S3∪ .......Sn = S then
(a) Atleast one of the sets Si is a finite set
(b) Not more than one of the set Si can be ignite
(c) Atleast one of the sets Si is an infinite set
(d)none of these

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 Daily Quiz

Q4 If X and Y are two sets, then X ∩ (Y ∪ X) C equals

(a)X (b)Y (c)Ø (d)None of these

Q5 If f : X -> Y and a, b ⊆ X, then f (a ∩ b) is equal to

(a) f(a) - f(b)
(b)f(a) ∩ f(b)
(c)a proper subset of f(a) ∩ f(b)
(d)f(b) - f(a)

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 Weekly Assignment
Q1 Let A={a,{a}}. Determine whether the following statements are
true or false. (a) {a,{a}} ε P(A) (b) {a,{a}} ⊆
P(A) (c) {{a}} ε P(A) (d) {{a}} ⊆
P(A)
Q2 Let U={0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7} and A = {0,2,4,6} , B={1,3,5,7} C = {0,
3,6}
Q3 Find (i) A U B (ii) A ∩ B (iii) B’ (iv) A-B
Q4. Prove that if A, B and C are three sets.
(i) A U (BUC) =(AUB)UC
(ii) A-(B∩C) = (A-B) U(A-C)
(iii) A∩(B-C) = (A∩B) – (A∩C)
Q5 A= {1,2,3} , B={ 4,5}, C={ 1,2,3,4,5}.Find (i) A X B (ii) C X B
(iii) B X B
Q6 Prove that( (A -B)XC) = (AXC)-(AXB).

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 Weekly Assignment

Q7 Prove that for n≥2 using principle of mathematical induction.

Q8 Is the “divides” relation on the set of positive integers transitive?
What is the reflexive and symmetric closure of the relation?
Q9 R = {(a, b) | a > b} on the set of positive integers?
Q10 Find the numbers between 1 to 500 that are not divisible by any of
the integers 2 or 3 or 5 or 7.
Q11 Prove by mathematical induction 3+33+333+..............33..3 =
(10n+1-9n-10)/27

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 MCQ s

Q1 A __________ is an ordered collection of objects.

(a) Relation (b) Function (c) Set (d) Proposition
Q2 Power set of empty set has exactly _________ subset.
(a) One (b) Two (c) Zero (d) Three
Q3 What is the Cartesian product of A = {1, 2} and B = {a, b}?
(a) {(1, a), (1, b), (2, a), (b, b)}
(b) {(1, 1), (2, 2), (a, a), (b, b)}
(c) {(1, a), (2, a), (1, b), (2, b)}
(d) {(1, 1), (a, a), (2, a), (1, b)}
Q4 The Cartesian Product B x A is equal to the Cartesian product A x B.
Is it True or False?
(a) True (b) False

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 MCQ s
Q5 What is the cardinality of the set of odd positive integers less than 10?
(a) 10 (b) 5 (c) 3 (d) 20
Q6 Which of the following two sets are equal?
(a) A = {1, 2} and B = {1}
(b) A = {1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3}
(c) A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {2, 1, 3}
(d) A = {1, 2, 4} and B = {1, 2, 3}
Q7 What is the Cardinality of the Power set of the set {0, 1, 2}.
(a) 8 (b) 6 (c) 7 (d) 9
Q8 In the principle of mathematical induction, which of the following
steps is mandatory?
(a) induction hypothesis (b) inductive reference
(c) induction set assumption (d) minimal set representation

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 Glossary Questions
QAttempt all parts Fill in The Blanks,
Hints(Power Set, Equivalent Set, Equal Set, Venn Diagram )
a A ………….. is a widely used diagram style that shows the logical
relation between sets.

b The………… definition is that when two sets have the same elements.

c ………… meaning states that two sets comprise an equal number of

elements.

d A………… includes all the subsets of a given set including the empty
set.

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 Glossary Questions
QAttempt all parts Fill in The Blanks,
Hints(Mathematical Induction, Domain, Range, Onto Function )
a An ……………is a function whose image is equal to its co domain.
b. The …………. of a function is the complete set of all possible
resulting values of the dependent variable

c. The ………….. of a function is the complete set of possible values of

the independent variable.

d ………………….is a mathematical technique which is used to prove a

statement, a formula or a theorem is true for every natural number.

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 Old Question Papers

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 Old Question Papers

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 Old Question Papers

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 Old Question Papers

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 Old Question Papers

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 Old Question Papers

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 Old Question Papers

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 Old Question Papers

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 Old Question Papers

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 Old Question Papers

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 Old Question Papers

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 Old Question Papers

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 Expected Questions for University Exam

Q1 Prove that (A B)  C =A( B  C) if an only if A  C.

Q2 Show that (A-B)  (B-A) = ɸ
Q3 Find the transitive closure of the relation R = {(3,3), (2,2), (1, 3),
(2, 1)} on A = {1, 2, 3, 4}.
Q4 Let A is a set with 10 distinct elements. Describe the following:-
(i) No. of different binary relations on A.
(ii) No. of different symmetric relations on A.
Q5 Define various types of functions.
Q6 How many symmetric and reflexive relations are possible from a set
A containing ‘n’ elements?

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 Summary

In the end students are able to develop there logical thinking by
using Sets, relation and functions concepts.

Mathematical Induction is used for hypothesis checking.

Venn diagram solve the problem is east way.

Combining of two relation is used to solve a task with together to

each other

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 References

1. Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications, Kenneth H. Rosen,

McGraw-Hill, 2006.

2. Discrete Mathematical Structures, B. Kolman, R. C. Busby, and S. C.

Ross, Prentice Hall, 2004.

3. Discrete and Combinatorial Mathematics, R.P. Grimaldi, Addison

Wesley, 2004.

4. Discrete Mathematical Structures, Y N Singh, Wiley-India, First

Edition, 2010.

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