Quantum Cryptography

Alice

Bob

Eve
 Sequence
• Cryptology – General View
• Quantum Cryptography - How it came up
• Theoretical Background
• History of Quantum Cryptography (QC)
• Quantum Key Distribution Protocol - BB84
• Quantum Key Distribution – Example
• Attack and Vulnerabilities
• Main Contribution of QC
• Security of QC
• State of the QC Technology
• Pros and Cons
 Cryptology – General View

 Cryptography is the art of devising codes and

ciphers.
 Crypto analysis is the art of breaking them.
 Cryptology is the combination of the two i. e
Cryptography and Crypto analysis
Cryptology – General View
 Cryptology – General View

• Need
– > Secure Communication
– > Secure Data Transmission
• Two techniques
– Symmetric - key encryption (shared key)
• Key - distribution problem
– Asymmetric - key encryption (pair of public &
secret keys)
• Success based on hardware limitations, absence of
good algorithms
 Cryptology – General View
Symmetrical (secret-key) cryptosystems:
Distribute key over secure channel

M S M

S: 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 M: 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0

XOR K: 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 XOR K: 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0
M: 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 S: 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0

- only provably secure cryptosystem known today

- not handy, key as long as message
- key only valid for one transmission
- how to send the key in a secure manner?
 Cryptology – General View
Asymmetrical (public-key) cryptosystems:
Message Encrypted message Message

Private Public

- First implementation of RSA in 1978

- Very convenient, Internet
- Idea is based on computational complexity
- rely on unproven assumptions
 Quantum Cryptography - How it came up

 Quantum Cryptography is an effort to allow two users of

a common communication channel to create a body of
shared and secret information. This information, which
generally takes the form of a random string of bits, can
then be used as a conventional secret key for secure
communication.
 Quantum cryptography is the science of exploiting
quantum mechanical properties to perform cryptographic
tasks.
 The best known example of quantum cryptography is
quantum key distribution which offers an information-
theoretically secure solution to the key exchange problem.
 Theoretical Background
 Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) uses quantum
mechanics to guarantee secure communication. It enables
two parties to produce a shared random secret key known
only to them, which can then be used to encrypt and decrypt
messages. It is often called quantum cryptography
 An important and unique property of quantum key
distribution is the ability of the two communicating users to
detect the presence of any third party trying to gain
knowledge of the key.
 Quantum - minimum amount of any physical entity
 Photon Polarization - Quantum Superposition
 2 orthogonal states:
1. Vertical-Horizontal
2. Diagonal +- 45 degrees
 Theoretical Background

Filter to distinguish
polarized photons

Correct Filter
applied

Wrong Filter
applied
 Theoretical Background

• PBS – Photon Beam Splitter

 Theoretical Background
• The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle states that we
do not know exactly what will happen to each individual
photon, for in the act of measuring its behavior, it alters
its properties. That means - “observation causes
perturbation”
• The no-cloning theorem states that it is impossible to
create an identical copy of an arbitrary unknown
quantum state.
• Quantum entanglement is a physical phenomenon that
occurs when pairs or groups of particles are generated
or interact in ways such that the quantum state of each
particle cannot be described independently — instead, a
quantum state may be given for the system as a whole.
 Theoretical Background

The Heisenberg Uncertainty principle, no-

cloning theorem and quantum
entanglement can be exploited for secured
communication in quantum Cryptography.
 Quantum Key Distribution (QKD)

• Technique used to securely share

cryptographic keys
• provides a level of security based on the
laws of physics, rather than computational
assumptions
• theoretically secure against
eavesdropping.
 Basic Principles of QKD

• Quantum Superposition
• Quantum Entanglement
• Measurement and Disturbance
 Example of QKD: The BB84 Protocol

• The BB84 protocol, developed by Charles Bennett and Gilles

Brassard in 1984, is one of the first and most widely known QKD
protocols. Here’s a simplified explanation of how it works:
• Preparation of Qubits:
– Alice (the sender) prepares a series of qubits in one of four possible states.
These states are chosen from two sets of bases:
• Rectilinear Basis: 0° and 90° (representing bits 0 and 1)
• Diagonal Basis: 45° and 135° (representing bits 0 and 1 in the diagonal basis)
– Each qubit is randomly prepared in one of these states and sent to Bob (the
receiver).
• Transmission of Qubits:
– Alice sends the qubits to Bob through a quantum channel.
• Measurement by Bob:
– Bob receives the qubits and measures each one using a randomly chosen
basis (rectilinear or diagonal). Because Bob does not know which basis Alice
used to prepare each qubit, his measurements will only be correct if he
happens to use the same basis that Alice used to prepare the qubit.
• Basis Comparison:
– After all qubits have been sent and measured, Alice and Bob
publicly discuss which bases they used for each qubit (but not
the results of their measurements). They discard any qubits
where they used different bases, as those results are
unreliable.
• Key Generation:
– Alice and Bob keep the results from the qubits where they used
the same basis. These results form their shared secret key.
• Eavesdropping Check:
• To ensure that no eavesdropper has intercepted the
qubits, Alice and Bob can perform a check by comparing a
portion of their key over a public channel. If the error rate
is above a certain threshold, it indicates the presence of
eavesdropping.
 Example Walkthrough

• Let’s consider a simple example:

• Alice’s Preparation:
– Alice prepares a sequence of qubits in the following states:
• 1st qubit: 0° (representing bit 0 in the rectilinear basis)
• 2nd qubit: 45° (representing bit 0 in the diagonal basis)
• 3rd qubit: 90° (representing bit 1 in the rectilinear basis)
• 4th qubit: 135° (representing bit 1 in the diagonal basis)
• Bob’s Measurement:
– Bob randomly chooses his measurement bases:
• 1st qubit: Rectilinear Basis
• 2nd qubit: Diagonal Basis
• 3rd qubit: Diagonal Basis
• 4th qubit: Rectilinear Basis
• Bob’s measurements are:
– 1st qubit: Correct (0)
– 2nd qubit: Correct (0)
– 3rd qubit: Incorrect (might measure 0 or 1 due to the basis mismatch)
– 4th qubit: Correct (1)
• Public Basis Exchange:
– Alice and Bob publicly compare their bases:
• For qubits 1 and 2, they used the same bases, so they keep the
results.
• For qubits 3 and 4, they used different bases, so these results are
discarded.
• Key Generation:
– The shared key between Alice and Bob is formed from the
results of the qubits where they used the same bases.
• Eavesdropping Check:
– If Alice and Bob check a subset of their key and detect a
higher error rate, they know there might have been
eavesdropping and can discard the key.
• Conclusion-
QKD provides a secure method for key distribution by exploiting
quantum mechanical properties. The security of QKD is based on
the fundamental principles of quantum mechanics, making it
theoretically secure against eavesdropping, provided the system
is implemented correctly and the quantum channel is secure.
 History of Quantum Cryptography

• Stephen Wiesner – early 1970s wrote paper "Conjugate

Coding”

• Paper by Charles Bennett and Gilles Brassard in 1984 is

the basis for Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) protocol
BB84. Prototype developed in 1991

• Another QKD protocol was invented independently by

Artur Ekert in 1991
Quantum Key Distribution Protocol - BB84

• First quantum cryptography protocol

• Goal: describe a scheme of two users who want to
communicate and exchange data securely.
• Idea: distribute a key securely, based on the laws of
physics.
• Security proofs:
– If someone reads the state of photon -> state changes
– Not possible to copy the photon in order to encode it
with
– all possible ways (basis)
 Quantum Key Distribution - Example

Step-1 :
To begin creating a key, Alice sends a photon
through either ‘0’ or ‘1’ slot of the rectilinear or
diagonal polarizing filters, while making a
record of previous orientations
 Quantum Key Distribution - Example
Step- 2 :
For each incoming bit, Bob chooses randomly which filter
slot he uses for detection and writes down both the
polarization and bit values.
 Quantum Key Distribution - Example
Step- 3 :
If Eve, the eavesdropper, tries to spy on the train of photons,
quantum mechanics prohibits her from using both filters to
detect the orientation of a photon. If she chooses the wrong
filter, she may create errors by modifying their polarization.
If Eve has intruded the
communication, she will
DEFINITELY left some traces due to
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
(HUP) and non cloning theorem
 Quantum Key Distribution - Example
Step- 4 :
After all the photons have reached Bob, he tells Alice over
public channel (telephone, email) the sequence of filters he
used for the incoming photon but not the bit values of
photons.
 Quantum Key Distribution - Example
Step- 5 :
Alice tells Bob during the same conversation which filter she
chose correctly. Those instances constitute the bits that
Alice and Bob will use to form the key that they will use to
encrypt message.

Key : 0 0 1 1 1
 Description of the E91 Protocol
• Entangled Photon Pairs:
– The protocol begins with the generation of entangled photon pairs.
Each pair of photons is created in an entangled state, meaning that
the quantum state of one photon is intrinsically linked to the quantum
state of the other, no matter how far apart they are.
– Suppose Alice and Bob are the two parties communicating. They each
receive one photon from each of several entangled photon pairs.
• Measurement:
– Alice and Bob independently choose measurement bases
for their respective photons. For simplicity, let’s assume
each photon can be measured in one of two bases (e.g.,
horizontal/vertical or diagonal/anti-diagonal polarization).
– The choice of basis is made randomly by both Alice and
Bob.
• Sharing Measurement Results:
– After performing their measurements, Alice and Bob retain
the measurement outcomes and discard the results where
they used different bases.
– They publicly exchange information about which bases
they used for each photon pair but not the measurement
results themselves.
• Key Generation:
– Alice and Bob only keep the measurement results from
photon pairs where they used the same measurement
basis. These results are used to form a shared secret key.

• Verification and Security Check:

– To ensure the key is secure, Alice and Bob perform a
verification process. They compare a subset of their
measurement results to check for discrepancies.
• Error Correction and Privacy Amplification:
– Once Alice and Bob have verified that their measurements
are consistent and that no significant eavesdropping has
occurred, they use classical error correction techniques to
reconcile any differences in their key bits.
– They then apply privacy amplification techniques to
further reduce any potential
 An example of the E91 Protocol

• Basis Choice:
– Alice and Bob each randomly choose one of two possible measurement
bases for each photon. Let’s say they have two measurement bases:
• Basis 1: Horizontal/Vertical (H/V)
• Basis 2: Diagonal/Anti-Diagonal (D/A)
– Alice and Bob make their basis choices independently and randomly for
each photon.
– For example, Alice might choose Basis 1 for 70 of her photons and
Basis 2 for the remaining 30, while Bob makes his choices randomly as
well.
• Measurement:
– Alice measures the polarization of her photons using her chosen bases
and records the results (e.g., H or V for Basis 1; D or A for Basis 2).
– Bob does the same for his photons.
• Result Sharing
• Basis Announcement:
– After measurement, Alice and Bob publicly announce
which basis they used for each photon pair but not the
measurement outcomes. For example, Alice might
announce, "For photons 1 to 70, I used Basis 1," and
similarly for Bob.
• Matching Bases:
– Alice and Bob only keep the results from the photon
pairs where they used the same measurement basis.
For instance, if both chose Basis 1 for a particular pair,
they keep those results; if they chose different bases,
they discard those results.
• Key Generation
• Create the Key:
– After filtering out the results where they used different bases, Alice and Bob
compare their measurement results for the photon pairs where they used
the same basis. They then use these results to generate a shared secret key.
– Suppose they used Basis 1 for 70 photon pairs, and after measurement, they
find that their results for these pairs match in, say, 60 cases. They will use
these 60 results as part of their shared key.
• Security Check
• Error Detection:
– Alice and Bob perform a verification step where they randomly check a
subset of their results to detect any discrepancies. If an eavesdropper had
tried to intercept the photons, it would disturb the entanglement and
introduce detectable errors.
– If the error rate is within an acceptable range (which is low), they proceed. If
not, they might discard the key and start the process again.
• Error Correction and Privacy Amplification:
– Alice and Bob use error correction techniques to reconcile
any differences in their results and then apply privacy
amplification to ensure the final key is secure and free
from any eavesdropping effects.
• Outcome
– After completing the security check and corrections, Alice
and Bob end up with a shared, secure key that they can
use for encrypted communication. The security of the key
is guaranteed by the principles of quantum mechanics and
the entanglement of the photons, ensuring that any
eavesdropping attempts are detectable.
 ATTACKS

• In Quantum Cryptography, traditional

man-in-the-middle attacks are impossible due to
the Observer Effect

• If Alice and Bob are using an entangled photon

system, then it is virtually impossible to hijack
these, because creating entangled photons
would be easily detected
 Vulnerabilities - Photon Number attack

Cause
• If more than one photon for each bit is sent
– Eve can steal extra photons to extract the stolen
photons information

Measure
• Ensure photon splitter only sends exactly ONE
photon at each time
• Single photon ensures quantum mechanic laws are
satisfied
 Vulnerabilities - Spectral attack
Cause
• If photons are created by DIFFERENT laser photo
diodes, they have different spectral characteristics.
– Eve performs spectral attack by measuring COLOR,
and not polarization

Measure
Use single laser photo diode
 Vulnerabilities – Random Numbers
Cause
• Are our random numbers really "Random"?
• Bob side, randomness is determined by Beam Splitter
• Alice side, randomness if a bit stream cannot be proven
mathematically
– "random" sequences by following specific patterns, Algorithms
generate NOT that random!
– Eve can use same algorithm to extract information
Measure
Entangled Photon
Pairs comes to the
rescue
(discussed in theoretical
background)
 Vulnerabilities – Fake State Attack

FSG: Fake State Generator

Measure
• One possible solution - apply classical cryptography to ensure the
message’s authenticity.
• Another solution - uses trusted certificates created by quantum
mechanics
 Noise
• Noise might introduce errors
• A detector might detect a photon even though there are
no photons

• Solution:
– send the photons according to a time schedule.
– then Bob knows when to expect a photon and can
discard those that doesn't fit into the scheme's time
window
 Privacy Amplification
• Eve might have partial knowledge of the key
• Suppose there are n bits in the key and Eve has
knowledge of m bits.
• Alice randomly chose a hash function where
h(x): {0,1}n  {0,1} n-m-s
• Reduces Eve's knowledge of the key to 2–s / ln2 bits
 Main Contribution of Quantum
Cryptography

• It solved the key distribution problem

• Once key is securely received it can be

used to encrypt/decrypt messages
transmitted by conventional channels
 Security of Quantum Key
Distribution
• Quantum cryptography obtains its fundamental
security from the fact that
– each qubit is carried by a single photon, and
– each photon will be altered as soon as it is read

• This makes impossible to intercept message

without being detected
 Security of Quantum Cryptography
• Eavesdropping on quantum signals can be detected
• Key generated from high-fidelity entangled states is private
• Using quantum error correction, high-fidelity entanglement
can be distilled from noisy entanglement
• “Prepare and measure” quantum key distribution,
augmented by error correction and privacy amplification is
secure (against any attack) if the bit error rate is low
• Quantum technologies are available today
• Other areas in quantum cryptography: digital signatures,
coin flipping, data hiding, etc
 State of the Quantum
Cryptography Technology

• Experimental implementations going on since

1990
• In 2004, QC is performed over distances of
30-40 km using optical fiber

• In general we need two capabilities:

(1)Single photon gun
(2) Being able to measure single photons
 Working Prototypes
• Quantum cryptography has been tried
experimentally over
– fibre-optic cables and,
– more recently, open air (23km)

RIGHT: The first prototype

implementation of quantum
cryptography
(IBM, 1989)
 Pros & Cons
• Nearly Impossible to
steal
• Detect if someone is
listening
• “Secure”
• Distance Limitations
• Availability
– vulnerable to DOS
– keys can’t keep up with
plaintext
 Future Scope (Prospects)
• The experiments suggests transmission to satellites
is possible, due to the lower atmospheric density at
higher altitudes
• The current commercial systems are aimed mainly at
governments and corporations with high security
requirements
• Factors preventing wide adoption of quantum
cryptography outside high security areas include the
cost of equipment, and the lack of a demonstrated
threat to existing key exchange protocols
 CONCLUSION


QKD systems are unconditionally secure, based on
the fundamental laws of physics

However, physical realisations of those systems
violate some of the assumptions of the security
proof

Eavesdroppers may thus intercept some of the sent
messages
 CONCLUSION

 Quantum cryptography is a major achievement

in security engineering

 As it gets implemented, it will allow perfectly

secure bank transactions, secret discussions
for government officials, and well-guarded
trade secrets for industry!
Discussion