Transducers and

Sensors
By Shamim Osata (PhD)
 • A transducer is an electronic device that converts
energy from one form to another.
What is a
Transducer? • Several factors influence the choice of a particular
transducer. Including:
i. The magnitude of quantity to be measured
ii. The order of accuracy required
iii. The static or dynamic character of the process to
be studied
iv. The site of application on the patients body, both
for short-term and long-term monitoring
v. Economic considerations.
 (i) By the process used to convert the signal energy into an
electrical signal. For this, transducers can be categorized as:
Active Transducers—a transducer that converts one form of
energy directly into another. E.g a photovoltaic cell in which
light energy is converted into electrical energy.
Passive Transducers—a transducer that requires energy to be
Classificatio put into it in order to translate changes due to the measurand.
They utilize the principle of controlling a dc excitation voltage or
n of an ac carrier signal. A passive transducer does not generate
its own energy; instead, it requires an external power source
Transducers to function. It translates physical changes (such as pressure,
temperature, or strain) into electrical signals by modifying an
input signal (usually a voltage or current). E.g a themistor

A photovoltaic system A thermistor

 (ii) By the physical or chemical principles used. For
example: variable resistance devices, Hall effect devices,
and optical fiber transducers.

(iii) By application for measuring a specific physiological

variable. For example: flow transducers, pressure
Classificatio transducers, temperature transducers, etc.

n of
Transducers

Flow transducer Temperature transducer

 • A transducer is normally placed at the input of a
measurement system, and therefore, its
characteristics play an important role in determining
the performance of the system.
Performanc Characteristics of a transducer can be categorized as:
e 1. Static characteristics - refer to the performance
of a transducer under constant or steady-state
Characterist conditions. These characteristics are essential for
ics of understanding how accurately and reliably a
transducer can convert input energy into output
Transducers signals without considering time or changes.

2. Dynamic characteristics - refer to the behavior of

a transducer when the input changes over time.
These characteristics are important for
understanding how well the transducer can respond
to changes and track rapidly varying signals.
 • Accuracy- this term describes the algebraic
difference between the indicated value and the
true or theoretical value of the measurand.
• Precision- refers to the degree of repeatability of
a measurement.
Static • Resolution- the resolution of a transducer
indicates smallest measurable input increment i.e.
characteristi it is the ability of the sensor to see small
cs differences in reading.
• Sensitivity- the ratio of the change in output
signal to the change in input signal.
• Hysteresis- the difference in output readings
when the input is increased and then decreased.
 • Response time- the time taken by the
transducer to respond to a change in the input
signal and reach a stable output.
Dynamic • Bandwidth- the range of frequencies over which
the transducer can accurately respond to changes
Characterist in the input signal.
ics • Time constant- the time required for the output
to reach approximately 63.2% of its final value
after a step change in the input.
 1) Displacement, position, and motion
transducers- useful in measuring the size,
shape, and position of the organs and tissues of
the body.
2) Pressure transducers- devices that convert
Types of pressure measurements into an electrical signal.
They are commonly used in various applications
transducers to monitor and control fluid or gas pressure.
3) Temperature transducers- convert
temperature changes into an electrical signal.
They are used in a wide range of applications to
monitor an
4) Photoelectric transducers- convert light
energy (photons) into an electrical signal.
 • Displacement transducers can be used in both
direct and indirect systems of measurement.

• Direct measurements of displacement could be

Displacem used to determine the change in diameter of the
blood vessels and the changes in volume and
ent, shape of the cardiac chambers.
position, • Indirect measurements of displacement are used
and to quantify the movement of liquids through the
heart valves. For example, detection of movement
motion of the heart indirectly through movement of a
transducer microphone diaphragm.

s • Displacement measurements are of great interest

because they form the basis of many transducers
for measuring pressure, force, acceleration and
temperature, etc.

The following types of transducers are generally used

for displacement, position and motion measurements.
 Piezoelectric transducers

• They are used in ultrasonic scanners for

imaging and blood flow measurements.

• They are used in detecting Korotkoff

sounds in non-invasive blood pressure
measurements.

Link https://www.youtube.com/watch?
app=desktop&v=3oVf0r51Fzw
Sphygmomanometer
 • The basic principle behind all these pressure
transducers is that the pressure to be measured
is applied to a flexible diaphragm which gets
deformed by the action of the pressure exerted
on it.

• This motion of the diaphragm is then measured

Pressure in terms of an electrical signal. In its simplest
transducer form, a diaphragm is a thin flat plate of circular
shape, attached firmly by its edge to the wall of a
s containing vessel.

• The use of a pressure transducer is indicated

when continuous and precise measurements of
clinical hemodynamic pressures must be
obtained. For example, a pressure transducer can
be used to monitor intraarterial pressure when
the measurements obtained with a noninvasive
blood pressure cuff would be too infrequent
 • Electronic thermometers are convenient, reliable, and
generally more accurate in practice than mercury-in-
glass thermometers for medical applications.

• They mostly use probes incorporating a thermistor or

Temperatu thermocouple sensor which have rapid response
characteristics.
re
transducer
s
Thermocouple
-A thermocouple is made of two wires of different
materials that are joined together at either end,
forming two junctions maintained at different
temperatures, a thermo-electromotive force
(emf) is generated causing a current to flow
around the circuit.

-The junction at the higher temperature is termed

the hot or measuring junction and at the lower
temperature the cold or reference junction.

-The cold junction is usually kept at 0°C. The

thermal emf and hence the current produced is
proportional to the temperature difference
existing between the junctions.

-The basis of temperature measurement, since

by inserting one junction in or on the surface of
the medium whose temperature is to be
measured and keeping the other at a lower and
constant temperature (usually 0°C), a
Thermistor

-Thermistors are thermally sensitive resistors- a

semiconductor device whose resistance
changes with the temperature.

-They are the oxides of certain metals like

manganese, cobalt, and nickel which have a
large negative temperature coefficient of
resistance, i.e. resistance of the thermistor falls
with increase in temperature.

-Thermistors are made in a wide variety of

forms suitable for use in medical applications.
They are available as wafers required for
applying to the skin surface, rods that can be
used for rectal, oral, or similar insertions, and
tiny beads so small that they can be mounted
at the tip of a hypodermic needle for insertion
into tissues.
 • Photoelectric transducers are based on the
principle of conversion of light energy into
electrical energy.

• This is done by causing the radiation to fall on a

Photoelect photosensitive element and measuring the
electrical current so generated with a sensitive
ric galvanometer directly or after suitable
amplification.
transducer
s • There are two types of photoelectric cells—
photovoltaic cells also known as barrier layer cells
and photoemissive cells.
SENSORS
Types of Sensors
1) Voltage sensors- measure the electrical potential of
biological systems e.g EEG, ECG, EMG.

2) Optical fibre sensors- they transmit light over great

distances with low power loss and the interaction of light
with a measured system provides the basis of these
sensing devices. Based on their application, they are
classified into: A. Biomedical sensors- used to
measure blood flow, and glucose content. B. Physical
sensors- used to measure physical properties like
temperature. C. Chemical sensors- used for
measurement of Ph, gas analysis, spectroscopy etc

3) Acoustic sensors- detect and measure sound waves or

vibrations in various environments. They convert sound
energy into electrical signals for processing and
analysis. e.g microphones for hearing aids.

4) Displacement/Pressure sensors and

Accelerometers- These measure pressure, as well as
changes in pressure and tissue displacement associated
 • A biosensor is an analytical device that combines
a biological component with a physicochemical
detector to measure and analyze biological
substances or chemical reactions.

• It is designed to detect specific biological or

chemical processes and convert the resulting
interaction into a measurable signal, often in real-
Biosensor time.
 1. Bioreceptor: This is the biological component of
the biosensor, which can be: Enzymes: Catalysts
that facilitate biochemical reactions. Antibodies:
Proteins that specifically bind to target antigens.
Nucleic Acids: DNA or RNA sequences that bind to
complementary sequences. Cells or Tissues: Living
cells or tissues that respond to specific stimuli.
Component
s of a 2. Transducer: This component converts the
biological response into a measurable signal.
Biosensor Transducers can operate using various principles,
such as Optical: Uses light absorption, fluorescence,
or other optical properties to generate a signal.
Piezoelectric: Detects changes in mass or
mechanical properties as a result of the interaction.

3. Processor/Readout System: This part processes

the signal generated by the transducer and displays
the results. It often includes data analysis software
for further interpretation of the results..
Blood Glucose Biosensor

•Glucose oxidase enzyme: The main

component responsible for detecting glucose in
the blood sample.
•Ag/AgCl reference electrode: A stable
reference point to compare electrical signals.
•Working electrode: Where the glucose reacts
and produces an electrical signal.
 How a blood glucose
biosensor
•Blood sample application: works
A small drop of blood is placed on the test strip,
which contains glucose oxidase.
•Glucose oxidase reaction: Glucose in the blood reacts with glucose oxidase
on the strip. This enzyme catalyzes the conversion of glucose into gluconic
acid, producing hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂).

•Electrochemical reaction: The hydrogen peroxide undergoes oxidation at

the working electrode, releasing electrons.

•Current measurement: The monitor detects the flow of electrons, which is

proportional to the glucose concentration in the blood.
•Ag/AgCl reference electrode: Provides a stable voltage reference to ensure
accurate and consistent measurements.
Displaying the Result
•The current generated by the electrochemical reaction is converted into a
glucose concentration. The monitor processes this electrical signal and displays
the blood glucose level on the screen.