MGT 301

Unit 10
Communication

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Functions of Communication
• We define communication as the transfer and understanding of
meaning.
• Communication is a social process in which two or more
parties exchange information and share meaning.
The four major functions of communication include:
• To control member behaviour in several ways e.g. to guide
activities.
• To motivate ees and encourage good performance.
• To express feelings and emotions & to fulfil social needs.
• To facilitate decision making- it provides data or info needed
to identify & evaluate choices in org-l operations.

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The Communication Process

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The Communication Process
• There should be a purpose for the communication or a message to be
conveyed.
• The sender (the source) encodes the message(converts into a
symbolic form) and
• Transmission- Passes the message thru a medium (channel) to the
receiver,
• The receiver decodes the message- (s)he interprets its meaning. The
receiver must be able to attach the same meaning to the symbols as
the sender; otherwise the communication would have failed.
• In the feedback loop the receiver returns a message to the sender
that indicates that they have received and understood (or not) the
message.

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 Noise
Noise is any disturbance in the communication
process that interferes with or distorts
communication.
•Noise represents barriers to communication that
can be introduced at any point in the
communication process.
•The sender selects the transmission channel - the
medium thru which the message travels.
•The receiver decodes the message- translates the
symbols into an understandable form.
•The feedback loop is a check on how successful the
communication has been & determines if
understanding has been achieved.
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Direction of Communication
Communication can flow vertically, up, or down and laterally.
•Downward comm.- this is communication that flows from
one level of an org to a lower level.
•Group leaders and managers use it to assign goals, provide
job instructions, explain policies and procedures, point out
problems that need attention & other feedback.
•Managers may explain why major decisions have been taken.
•A problem with downward comm. is its one way nature.
Managers inform ees but rarely seek their advice or opinions.
•The message must be repeated several times and thru
different media to be effective.

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 Upward Communication
• In Upward comm messages flow to a higher level in the org
from a lower level.
• It is used to provide feedback to higher authorities, inform
them of progress towards goals and to relay current problems.
• It keeps managers aware of how their ees feel about their jobs,
co-workers and the org.
• Managers rely on it for ideas on how conditions can be
improved.
• Effective upward comm. uses headlines and avoids long
paragraphs which busy managers will not have the time to
read.

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 Lateral
Communication
• This is communication that takes place between
colleagues at the same level (horizontally
equivalent workers) within the same work group
or across work groups.
• Some lateral relationships are formally
sanctioned but they are oft informally created to
expedite action and avoid hierarchy.
• It saves time and facilitates coordination.
• It can be beneficial or dysfunctional:
o Especially if occurring with mgt’s knowledge and support to speed up
communication.
o It can create dysfunctional conflicts when fml vertical channels are
breached, when members go around their superiors to get things done.
o Or when bosses find actions have been taken without their knowledge.

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Communication
Networks

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 Communication
Networks
A Wheel Network- is a pattern in which information flows
between the person at the end of each spoke and the person
in the middle.
•Those on the ends of the spokes do not directly communicate
with each other.
•It relies on a central figure to act as a conduit for group comm
•It is typical of workgroups in which the primary comm occurs
between members and the group manager or strong leader.

In a Chain Network, each member comm with the person

above & below them, except for individuals on each end, who
comm with only one person.
•It is typical of comm in a vertical hierarchy, in which most
comm travels up and down.
•Communication follows the formal chain of command. 10
 Common
Communication
Networks ctd.
In a Circle Network each member comm with the
peo on both sides but not with anyone else.
•The circle network is found in task forces &
committees.
In an All-Channel Network, all members comm with
all the other members.
•It is characterised in practice by self-managing
teams.
•It is often found in informal groups that have no
formal structure, leader or no task to accomplish.
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 The Grapevine
• An organization’s informal communication’s network is called
the grapevine.
• Word of mouth information from peers about the org has
important effects on whether job applicants join the org or not.
• Rumours emerge as a response to situations that are important to
us, when there is ambiguity and.
• Under conditions that arouse anxiety.
• The fact that work situations frequently contain these three
elements explains why rumours flourish in orgs.
• The secrecy & competition that typically prevails around the
appointment of new bosses, the relocation of offices,
downsizing, realignment of assignments encourage rumours on
the grapevine. 12
 Reducing Negative
Consequences of Rumours
1. Provide information- in the long run, the best defence against
rumours is to provide formal information. Rumours thrive in
the absence of fml comm.
2. Explain actions and decisions that may appear inconsistent,
unfair or secretive.
3. Refrain from shooting the messenger. Rumours are a natural
part of org-l life, so respond to them calmly, rationally &
respectfully.
4. Maintain open comm channels- constantly encourage ees to
come to you with concerns, suggestions and ideas.

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 Modes of
Communication
Oral Communication- is a primary means of
conveying messages. E.g.s include
•Formal speeches
•Group discussions
•Informal conversations and the rumour mill
•Task related information exchanges
•Meetings- can be formal or informal
•Videoconferencing= real-time meetings with peo at
different locations
•Telephone

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 Written
Communication
Letters- Letter writing is the oldest and the most
enduring form of comm.
•It creates a lasting record which may be useful for
future references and verification.
Other written forms include:
•Emails and Text messaging
•Memos
•Reports
•Manuals
•Forms

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 Nonverbal comm
• Every time we deliver a verbal message, we also
impart a non verbal message. It includes:
• Body language which is body movement and
facial expressions
Environmental elements
• Office design & furniture layout can convey
status, power and prestige
• Can create an atmosphere for doing business and
encourage personal interactions or discourage
them.
• The physical setting can also be instrumental in
the development of communication networks e.g.
central location facilitate the flow of information.
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17
Communication
Channel

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 Channel Richness
Channels differ in their capacity to convey information.
•Some are rich in that they can
1.handle multiple cues(e.g. words, facial expressions, & gestures)
simultaneously.
2.Facilitate rapid feedback, and
3.Be very personal(e.g. the personal touch of being present).
Others are lean in that they score low on these factors.
•Face-to-face conversation scores highest on channel richness because
it transmits the most info per communication, gives immediate
feedback & the personal touch.
•The impersonal written media such as formal reports, memos and
letters rate the lowest in richness.

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 Choosing comm.
methods
The choice of channel depends on whether the message is
routine.
•Routine messages tend to be straightforward & have
minimal ambiguity; channels low in richness can carry them
efficiently.
•Non-routine comm. are likely to be complicated and have
potential for misunderstanding. Managers can comm. them
effectively by selecting rich channels.
•A variety of modes of comm. work best to convey important
ideas.
•Channel richness is a helpful framework for choosing your
mode of communication.
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 Written
Communication
• Written comm is the most reliable mode for complex &
lengthy comm & for short messages as well, e.g. sms.
but it can be limited in its emotional expression.
• It should be chosen when we want information to be
tangible and verifiable. i.e. both you and the receiver
will have will have a record of the message.
• Peo are forced to think more thoroughly about what they
want to convey in a written message than in a spoken
one.
• Thus it can be well thought out, logical and clear.
• Letters are used in business primarily for networking
purposes and when signatures need to be authentic.

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 When choosing email
• Risk of misinterpreting the message- a NY Uni. research
team discovered that only 50% of the time are email msgs
accurately decoded. Most of us over-estimate our ability to
send and interpret msgs accurately.
• Fall-out from –ve msgs- when Radio Shack laid off 400 ees
it drew an avalanche of scorn by doing it via email.
• Time-consuming nature- checking & reading emails takes a
long time. Writing emails can take even longer. The
following strategies might help:
o Don’t check emails in the morning.
o Check emails in batches, not throughout the day.
o Unsubscribe to extra clutter of e-newsletters & product endorsements.

• Limited expression of emotions

• Privacy concerns- there are many privacy issues with email.
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 Information Security
• Security is a huge concern for nearly all orgs with
private or proprietary data or info. about clients,
customers or ees.
• Orgs worry about the security of electronic data they
seek to protect such as patient’s data, physical data in
their filing cabinets and data entrusted to ees.
• The recent adoption of cloud-based electronic data
storage has brought a new level of worry, though the
fears seem unwarranted as the technology has proven
to be safe so far.
• The business use of cloud-based technology is likely
to increase.
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 Information Security ctd.
• Most companies actively monitor ee’s internet use
and email records.
• Some companies use video surveillance & record
phone conversations for safety and security purposes.
• Such practices can seem invasive to ee’s privacy.
• An org can relieve ee’s concerns by engaging them in
the creation of info security policies & can give them
some control over the use of their personal data.

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 Automatic & Controlled
Processing
Differentiate between automatic & controlled processing.
•Automatic processing is a relatively superficial consideration of
evidence & information, making use of heuristics. e.g. the last
time you bought a can of your fizzy drink(s), your choice was
easy as you picked your most favourite.
•It takes little time and effort.
•It is used for processing persuasive messages related to topics
you don’t care much about.
•It can let us be easily fooled by a variety of tricks such as glitzy
ads, or a glamorous photo.

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 Automatic & Controlled
Processing ctd.
Controlled processing is a detailed consideration of evidence &
information relying on facts, figures and logic.
•E.g. when you choose a place to live, you need to do
independent research among experts who know something about
the area, gather info about prices, and consider the costs &
benefits of renting vs buying or building your own property.
•It relies on more effortful processing- a detailed consideration of
the evidence.
•Controlled processing requires more energy and it is harder to
fool someone who has taken the time and effort to do it.

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Processing used depends on?
• Interest level- interest levels reflect the impact a decision
is going to have on your life. When interested in the
outcome of a decision peo are more likely to process the
data more carefully.
• Prior knowledge- peo who are very well informed about a
subject are more likely to use controlled processing
strategies. Having already thought thru the various
arguments for or against specific courses, they won’t
readily change their positions, unless very good, thoughtful
reasons are provided.
• On the other hand, those who are poorly informed about a
topic, can change their minds readily- even in the face fairly
superficial arguments presented.
• Personality- there are some individuals who are likely to be
persuaded only by evidence and facts. Those who are low
in this attribute are likely to use automatic processing 27
Processing used depends on?
ctd.
Message Characteristics - messages provided thru lean
communication channels, with little opportunity for users to
interact with the content, encourages automatic processing.
•Conversely, messages provided thru rich communication
channels tend to encourage more deliberative controlled
processing.

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 Barriers to effective
communication
Filtering= +ve spin on the message. It refers to a sender
purposely manipulating info so the receiver will see it more
favourably.
•If you tell your boss what you think he wants to hear, you will be
filtering info.
•Factors such as the fear of conveying bad news & the desire to
please the boss oft lead ees to filter their messages, thus
distorting comm.
Selective perception- receivers in the comm process selectively
see & hear based on their needs, motivations, experience,
background and other personal characteristics.
•Receivers project their interests & expectations into comm
messages as they decode them.
•We don’t see reality; we interpret what we see and call it
reality.
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 Barriers to effective
communication ctd.
Information/data overload- individuals have a finite
capacity for processing data. When the data we
have to work with exceeds our processing capacity
the result is overload.
•Dealing with this has become a huge challenge.
•When individuals have more data than they can
handle, they select some, ignore or forget some.
•Or they may put off further processing until the
overload situation ends less effective comm.
•Ees must balance the need for constant comm with
their personal need for breaks from work or they
risk burnout.
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 Barriers to effective
communication ctd.
Emotions- you may interpret the same message
differently when you are angry than when you are
happy.
•E.g. peo in +ve moods are more confident about
their opinions after reading a persuasive message.
Peo in –ve moods are more likely to scrutinize
messages in greater detail, whereas those in +ve
moods tend to accept comm at face value.
•Extreme emotions e.g. jubilation or depression are
most likely to hinder effective comm. emotional
judgments.

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 Barriers to effective
communication ctd.
Language- words mean different things to different
peo.
•Age and context are two of the biggest factors that
influence such differences. E.g. young peo’s lingo or
slang is likely to mean nothing or will be
misunderstood by the adults and vice-versa.
•Our use of language is far from uniform. If we knew
how each of us modifies the language, we could
minimise comm difficulties. Senders should not
assume that their words & terms mean the same to
the receivers as to them.

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 Barriers to effective
communication ctd.
Silence- Research suggests using silence and
withholding comm are common and problematic.
•One survey found that >85% of managers reported
remaining silent about at least one issue of
significant concern.
•Ee silence means managers lack info about
ongoing operational problems.
•Silence regarding discrimination, harassment,
corruption & misconduct means that top
management cannot take action to eliminate this
behaviour.
•Ees who are silent about important issues may
experience stress. 33
 Global Implications
Cross cultural factors create the potential for
increased comm problems.
•A gesture that is well understood & acceptable in
one culture can be meaningless or be seen as rude
in another.
•Cultural barriers
o Barriers caused by word connotations e.g. the Japanese word hai
translates as yes but its connotation is “yes, I am listening & I hear
you” rather than “yes, I agree”.
o Differences in tolerance for conflict and methods for resolving conflict.
• Individualist cultures tend to be more comfortable with direct
conflicts and make the source of their conflict overt.
• Collectivists cultures acknowledge conflict only implicitly & avoid
emotionally charged disputes.

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•
Cultural Context
High context cultures rely heavily on nonverbal &
subtle situational cues in comm.
o A person’s official status, place in society & reputation carry
considerable weight.
o What is not said may be more significant than what is said.
o Oral agreements imply strong commitments in high context cultures.
o Who you are- your age, rank in the org or seniority is highly valued.
o Examples are China, Korea, Japan and Botswana cultures.

• Low context cultures rely heavily on words to

convey meaning in comms.
o They rely on spoken and written words to convey meaning; status and
formal titles are secondary in comms.
o Enforceable contracts tend to be in writing, precisely worded and
highly legalistic.
o They value directness; managers are expected to be explicit & precise
in conveying intended meaning.
o Examples are North America, Swiss and German cultures. 35
 A cultural guide
• It is safe to assume that everyone of us has a
different viewpoint that is culturally shaped.
• We have an opportunity to reach the most creative
solutions possible with the help of others if we
communicate effectively.
• Intercultural comm should be based on
sensitivity(to other cultures) and pursuit of
common goals.
• The ideal condition is an ad-hoc “third culture” the
group can form when they incorporate each
member’s cultural comm preferences a common
ground for effective communication.
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 misinterpretations
when commg across
cultures
1. Know yourself- recognizing your own cultural
identity and biases is critical to understanding
others viewpoints.
2. Foster a climate of mutual respect, fairness and
democracy- establish an environment of equality
and mutual concern. This will be your third
culture transcending each person’s cultural
norms.
3. Learn the cultural context of each person- you
may find more similarities or differences to your
own frame of reference than you might expect. 37
 To reduce
misinterpretations
4. When in doubt, listen. If you speak your opinion
too early, you may offend the other person. Listening
first allows you to understand the other person’s
language and their familiarity with your culture.
5. State the facts, not your interpretation –
interpreting or evaluating what someone has said or
done draws more on your own culture than on the
observed situation.
6. Consider the other person’s viewpoint. Put
yourself in their shoes. Consider their values &
experiences.
7. Proactively maintain the identity of the group- the
establishment of a common ground third culture
takes time. Remind members of your common goals. 38