THE LYMPHOID

(IMMUNE) SYSTEM
Immune System
• comprises structures and
cells that are distributed
throughout the body
• their principal function is to
protect the body from
invasion and damage by
microorganisms and foreign
substances
 Lymphoid Organs
1. Primary/Central Lymphoid
Organs
Bones marrow and Thymus
2. Peripheral Lymphoid Organs:
Spleen, Lymph Nodes,
MALT-Mucosa-associated
lymphoid tissue: Solitary nodules,
tonsils, appendix, and Peyer's
patches of the ileum
Basic Types of Immune Reaction
1. Cell-mediated immune response
• cells react against and kill microorganisms, foreign cells
(from tumors and transplants), virus-infected cells.
• This is mediated mainly by T lymphocytes
2. Humoral Immune response
• the immune response that depends on the formation of
antibodies that inactivate or destroy foreign substances
• This is mediated mainly by B lymphocytes (plasma cells)
 Basic Types of Immune Reaction

3. Innate Immune System

- The simplest; its response is fast, nonspecific, and does not depend
on previous contact with the pathogen. It is composed of:
A. Macrophages and neutrophils - phagocyte invaders
B. Natural Killer cells - kill tumor cells, virally infected cells, bacteria
and parasites
 Basic Types of Immune Reaction
4. Adaptive Immune Sytem
- responsible for eliminating threats from specific invaders
- adaptive immne response exhibits four distinctive properties:
Specificity, Diversity, Memory, and Self/Nonself recognition
- T lymphocytes, B lymphocytes and specialized macrophages known
as antigen-presenting cells (APCs) initiate and participate in the adaptive
immune response. These cells communicate with each other by signaling
molecules(cytokines) which are released in response to encounters with
foreign substances called Antigens.
Immunogen
• a foreign molecule that always elicit an immune response in the
host

Antigen
• a molecule that can react with an antibody irrespective of its ability
to elicit an immune response

Epitope
• antigenic determinant. Large foreign invaders like bacteria have
several epitopes, each capable of binding to a different antibody
• the part of an antigen molecule to which an antibody attaches itself.
 Adaptive Immune Response
• takes days or even weeks to become established—much longer
than the innate response; however, adaptive immunity is more
specific to pathogens and has memory.
• Adaptive immunity is an immunity that occurs after exposure to
an antigen either from a pathogen or a vaccination. This part of
the immune system is activated when the innate immune
response is insufficient to control an infection. In fact, without
information from the innate immune system, the adaptive
response could not be mobilized.
Primary Vs. Secondary Immune
response
 Immunoglobulins (Antibodies)
• are circulating plasma glycoproteins
that interact specifically with the
antigenic determinant that elicited
their formation
• Immunoglobulin structure
• 2 heavy chains
• 2 light chains
• Immunoglobulin Fragments
• 1 Fc (Fragment crystallizable)
• 2 Fab (Fragment antigen-binding)
• are variable in amino acid sequence
and thus are responsible for the
specificity of the immune response
Classes of Immunoglobulins
• IgG
• monomer
• abundant - 80%; found in
blood, lymph and intestinal
lumen; activates phagcytosis,
neutralizes antigen, protects
newborns
• only immunoglobulin that
can cross the placenta
 IgA
• dimer
• 10-15%
• found in saliva, milk, tears
• protects the surface of
mucosa
• resists proteolysis
IgM
• pentamer
• 5-10%
• found together with IgD on
surface of B lymphocytes-
receptor to antigens
• first antibodies to be produced
in an initial immune or primary
response
IgD
• monomer
• 0.2%
• found on B-cell surface
• receptor to antigens
IgE
• monomer
• present on the surface of
basophils and mast cells;
• participates in allergy and
lyses parasitic worms
Cells of the Adaptive Immune Sytem
1. T lymphocyte
• originate in the bone marrow and migrate to the thymus to
become immunocompetent; they are responsible for the cellular
mediated immune response
• T cells have TCRs(T-cell receptors) on their plasmalemmas which
function as antigen receptors.
• T cell is MHC-restricted because TCR can recognize an epitope only
if the epitope is a polypeptide and if the epitope is bound to a
major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecule, such as those
found on an APC
Subtypes of Tcells
• T helper cells 1 & 2
• modulates T and B cells, stimulating their activities
• the cytokines secreted by Th1 cells elicit a response against a
bacterial or viral attack
• Th2 cells elicit response against a parasite or mucosal infection
• T cytotoxic cells (Tc cell)
• specialized to recognize antigens associated with MHC-I on the surface
of other cells
• produces perforin and other proteins that kill foreign cells, virus-
infected cells, and some tumor cells
Subtypes of T cell
• T supressor cells
• repress the immune response by inhibiting the capabilities of
other T and B cells
• T memory cells
• are members of clones that have an immunological memory for a
particular isotope
2. B Lymphocytes
• small lymphocytes that originate and become
immunocompetent in the bone marrow
• during the process of becoming immunocompetent, each cell
manufactures about 150,000 IgM molecules and inserts these
in its plasma membrane
• they are called surface immunoglobulins (SIGs) and are
receptors for specific antigens
• an activated B cell undergoes transformation, forming plasma
cells and B-memory cells
 3. Antigen-Presenting Cells (APCs)
• found in most tissues, express major histocompatibility
molecules (MHC) on their plasmalemma and they phaocytose,
catabolize, and process antigens, attach their epitopes to MHC
molecules and present this complex to T cells. T cells then
produce cytokines which cause B cells to respond to the
processed antigens by making antibodies.
• APCs include macrophages, dendritic cells (such as Langerhans of
epidermis and oral mucosa), B cells and epithelial reticular cells
of the thymus.
• Similar to T-helper cells, APCs manufacture and release cytokines
Major Histocompatibility Complex
• molecules found on cell surfaces which enables the
immune system to distinguish self from nonself
antigens. In humans they are also called human
leukocyte antigen (HLA) because they were discovered
in leukocytes
• MHC-I is present in all cells
• MHC-II is found only in APCs
Cytokines
• a group of peptides or glycoproteinshat influence both
cellular and humoral mechanisms
• they act on cells that have receptors fro them, not only
immune cells but also cells of other systems, such as the
nervous and endocrine system
• mainly synthesized by macrophages and leukocytes, and
also by endothelial cells and fibroblasts
Cytokines
1. Interleukins (IL)
- cytokines that interact with leukocytes. They activate
their multiplication and differentiation
2. Lymphokine
- cytokines produced by lymphocytes
3. Monokines
- cytokines synthesized by monocytes or macrophages
Cytokines
4. Chemokines or chemotaxins
- cytokines that induce the attraction of leukocytes to
sites of inflammation
5. Interferons
- cytokines produced by any cell infected by viruses
6. Tumor necrosis factor
- stimulates the expresion of adhesion molecules, the
secretion of chemokines by macrophages, promotes
apoptosis of target cells, and has systemic effects, such as
fever.
Complement System
• a pool of approximately 20 proteins produced mainly in the
liver, each one designated by the letter “C” followed by a
number
• Opsonization
• the process of preparing the bacteria to attach more easily to
macrophages
• Complement Fixation
• when an antibody attaches to an antigen, it may produce a
complex that causes damage to the bacterial membrane
 Lymphoid Organs
• The lymphatic system is the system
of vessels, cells, and organs that
carries excess fluids to the
bloodstream and filters pathogens
from the blood.
Thymus
• site of maturation of T cells
• each lobule of the thymus is
made up of a cortex and medulla
Capsule of the Thymus
• the thin capsule is composed of
dense irregular collagenous
connective tissue (with some
elastic fibers) that extends
interlobular trabeculae that
incompletely subdivide the
thymus into lobules
 Cortex of Thymus
• has no lymphatic nodules or
plasma cells
• composed of lightly staining
epithelial reticular cells,
macrophages, and densely
packed, darkly staining, small T
lymphocytes (thymocytes)
responsible for the dark
appearance of the cortex
• epithelial reticular cells also
surround capillaries, the only
blood vessels present in the cortex
 Medulla of thymus
• stains much lighter than the
cortex, is continuous from
lobule to lobule
• contains plasma cells,
lymphocytes, macrophages,
and epithelial reticular cells
• Thymic (hassall's) corpuscle,
concentrically arranged
epithelial reticular cells, are
characteristic feature of the
thymic medulla
 Lymph Nodes
• small, encapsulated, oval
structures that are interposed in
the path of lymph vessels to
serve as filters for the removal of
bacteria and other foreign
substances
• 99% of the impurities foun in the
lymph are removed by
macrophages
• prevalent in the neck, axilla,
groin, along major vessels, and
in body cavities
Capsule of the Lymph Node
• usually surrounded by adipose
tissue, composed of dense
irregular collagenous connective
tissue containing some elastic
fibers and smooth muscle
• afferent lymphatic vessels enter
the convex aspect; efferent
lymphatics and blood vessels
piece the hilum
Cortex of Lymph nodes
• Lymphatic nodules, composed of a
dark corona (mostly B lymphocytes)
and lighter staining germinal centers,
housing activated B lymphoblats,
macrophages, and dendritic reticular
cells are found in the cortex
• connective tissue trabeculae
subdivide the cortex into incomplete
compartments.
• subcapsular and cortical sinuses
display lymphocytes, reticular cells,
and macrophages
Paracortex of the Lymph
Nodes
• region of the lymph node
between the cortex and medulla
• it houses most of the T cells
• Postcapillary venules, with their
characteristic cuboidal
endothelium, are present
 Medulla of the Lymph Node
• displays connective tissue
trabeculae, medullary cords
(composed of macrophages,
plasma cells, and lymphocytes),
and medullary sinusoids lined by
discontinuous endothelial cells
• sinusoids contain lymphocytes,
plasma cells, and macrophages
• the region of the hilum is evident
as a result of the thickened
capsule and lack of lymphatic
nodules
 Tonsils
• lymphoid nodules located along
the inner surface of the pharynx
and are important in developing
immunity to oral pathogens
• The tonsil located at the back of
the throat, the pharyngeal tonsil,
is sometimes referred to as the
adenoid when swollen. Such
swelling is an indication of an
active immune response to
infection.
Palatine Tonsils
1. Epithelium
• covered by stratified squamous nonkeratinized epithelium that extends
into the tonsillar crypts
• lymphocytes may migrate through the epithelium
2. Lymphatic Nodules
• surround crypts and frequently display germinal centers
3. Capsule
• dense irregular collagenous connective tissue capsule separates the
tonsil from the underlyingpharyngeal wall musculature. Septa, derived
from the capsule, extend into the tonsil
4. Glands
• not present
 Pharyngeal Tonsils
1. Epithelium
pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium covers the free surface, as
well as the folds that resemble crypts
2. Lymphatic Nodules
most lymphatic nodules display germinal centers
3. Capsule
the thin capsule, situated deep to the tonsil, provides septa for the tonsil
4. Glands
Ducts of the seromucous glands, beneath the capsule, pierce the tonsil
to open onto the epithelially covered surface
Lingual Tonsils
1. Epithelium
stratified squamous nonkeratinized epithelium covers the
tonsil and extends into the shallow crypts
2. Lymphatic Nodules
most lymphatic nodules present germinal centers
3. Capsule
capsule is thin, not clearly defined
4. seromucous glands open into the base of the crypts
 Spleen
• a major secondary lymphoid organ
• It is about 12 cm (5 in) long and is attached to the
lateral border of the stomach via the gastrosplenic
ligament.
• The spleen is a fragile organ without a strong
capsule, and is dark red due to its extensive
vascularization. The spleen is sometimes called the
“filter of the blood” because of its extensive
vascularization and the presence of macrophages
and dendritic cells that remove microbes and other
materials from the blood, including dying red blood
cells.
• The spleen also functions as the location of
immune responses to blood-borne pathogens.
A. Capsule
• composed of dense irregular
collagenous connective tissue
thickest at the hilumm, possesses
some elastic fibers and smooth
muscle cells
• covered by mesothelium but is
not surrounded by adipose tissue
• trabeculae, bearing blood vessels,
extend from the capsule into the
substance of the spleen
B. White Pulp
• composed of periarterial
lymphatic sheaths and lymphatic
nodules with germinal centers.
• both periarterial (housing T
lymphocytes) and lymphatic
nodules (housing B lymphocyte)
surround the acentrically located
central artery, a distinguishing
characteristic of the spleen
C. Marginal Zone
• a looser accumulation of
lymphocytes,
macrophages, and
plasma cells are located
between white and red
pulps
• it is supplied by capillary
loops derived from the
central artery
 D. Red Pulp
• composed of pulp cords and
sinusoids
• pulp cords are composed of delicate
reticular fibers, stellate-shaped
reticular cells, plasma cells,
macrophages, and cells of the
circulating blood.
• sinusoids are lined by elongated
discontinuous endothelial cells
surrounded by thickened hoop-like
basement membrane in association
with reticular fibers