CHAPTER SEVEN

DAT ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION:

Qualitative & Quantitative Data

By:
Abdu M.(PhD)
 Chapter objectives

• Identify the main issues that you need to

consider when preparing data for analysis;
• Exercise qualitative data analysis;
• Distinguish between descriptive and inferential
analysis
• Distinguish between quantitative & qualitative
data analysis
• Distinguish between parametric and non-
parametric tests;
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 Introduction-cont’d
 Data analysis: is the process of summarizing,
organizing and processing collected data.
o It is the search for patterns in data and for ideas that
help to explain why those patterns are there in the first
place.
Data Interpretation: is the process of attaching
meaning to the data.
o Attempt to find meaning
How do these differ by research tradition?
o Quantitative
o Qualitative
7.1. Getting your data ready

• Organize and keep all forms

(questionnaires, interviews,
testimonials)
• Check for completeness and accuracy
• Remove those that are incomplete or do
not make sense
 Getting data ready cont’d

 Editing: done during field and post field. The field

editing is a review of reporting by the investigator for
completing what has been written in an abbreviated form
during interviewing the respondent. Post-field editing
requires review of all forms thoroughly.
 Coding: To keep the response with in limited
alternatives, we need to assign some words, alphabetical
or numerical symbols or combination of them to the
answers.

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 7.2. Coding
• Coding – process of translating information gathered
from questionnaires or other sources into something
that can be analyzed.
• Involves assigning a value to the information given—
often value is given a label
• Coding can make data more consistent:
– Example: Question = Sex
– Answers = Male, Female, M, or F
– Coding will avoid such inconsistencies
 Coding Systems
• Common coding systems (code and label) for dichotomous
variables:
– 0=No 1=Yes
(1 = value assigned, Yes= label of value)
– OR: 1=No 2=Yes
• When you assign a value you must also make it clear what that
value means
– In first example above, 1=Yes but in second example 1=No
– As long as it is clear how the data are coded, either is fine
• You can make it clear by creating a data dictionary to
accompany the dataset
 Coding: Dummy Variables
• A “dummy” variable is any variable that is coded to have 2
levels (yes/no, male/female, etc.)
• Dummy variables may be used to represent more complicated
variables
– Example: # of cigarettes smoked per week--answers total 75 different
responses ranging from 0 cigarettes to 3 packs per week
– Can be recoded as a dummy variable:
1=smokes (at all) 0=non-smoker
• This type of coding is useful in later stages of analysis
 Coding: Continuous Variables
• Creating categories from a continuous variable (ex. age) is
common
• May break down a continuous variable into chosen categories
by creating an ordinal categorical variable
• Example: variable = AGECAT
1 = 0–9 years old
2 = 10–19 years old
3 = 20–39 years old
4 = 40–59 years old
5 = 60 years or older
 Coding Tip
• Though you do not code until the data is
gathered, you should think about how you are
going to code while designing your
questionnaire, before you gather any data.
This will help you to collect the data in a
format you can use.
 7.3. Data entry
 Qualitative researchers usually transcribe their data;
that is, they type the text (from interviews,
observational notes, memos, etc.) into word
processing documents.

 It is these transcriptions that are later analyzed, by

Coding and Developing Category Systems or using
one of the qualitative data analysis computer
programs
 Data entry
• You can enter your data
– By hand
– By computer
 Data entry by computer
• By Computer
– Excel (spreadsheet)
– Microsoft Access (database mgt)
– Quantitative analysis: SPSS (statistical software)
– Qualitative analysis: Epi info (CDC data
management and analysis program:
www.cdc.gov/epiinfo); In ViVo, etc.
 Data entry cont’d
The Qualitative data analysis computer programs

Program name Website address

AnSWR (freeware) http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/
software/answr.htm
ATLAS http://atlasti.de/
Ethnograph http://qualisresearch.com
HyperResearch http://researchware.com
Nvivo http://
www.qsrinternational.com
NUD-IST http://
www.qsrinternational.com
 7.4. Data Cleaning
 One of the first steps in analyzing data is to “clean” it
of any obvious data entry errors:
 Outliers? (really high or low numbers)
 Example: Age = 110 (really 10 or 11?)
 Value entered that doesn’t exist for variable?
 Example: 2 entered where 1=male, 0=female
 Missing values?
 Did the person not give an answer? Was answer
accidentally not entered into the database?
 7.5. Data processing
 Classification: process of organizing data into groups
and classes on the basis of certain characteristics.
• Data presentation: The organized data should be
presented using the following methods:
o Tabulation: Develop a master chart in which we
record individual respondents in rows and the details
of variables in columns - Quantitative data
o Graphical presentation: drawing graphs of two
dimensional ( Y and X axis) – Quantitative data
o Thematic summary of findings ( Qualitative data)

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7.6. Qualitative Data Analysis

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 7.6.1. What is qualitative data?
 Qualitative data is information gathered in a non-numeric form.
 Common examples of such data are:
o Interview transcript
o Field notes (notes taken in the field being studied)
o Video
o Audio recordings :
o Images
o Documents (reports, meeting minutes, e-mails)
o Text
o Written words
o Phrases
o Symbols describing or presenting people, actions and events in
social life
 We use qualitative research to:
• Develop an understanding of people or groups
that we know very little about.
• Develop new theories that are relevant to
women, people of color, and other groups in
society that might have been excluded from
previous studies.
 9.3.2. Tools used to record qualitative data

• For individual and group interviews, use a

combination of tape recording and note taking.

• For observation, field notes should be taken.

• For content analysis, copies of the documents can be

made or some type of measurement or note taking
device is needed to record common words, phrases, or
themes.
Data to be analyzed will consist of:
• Words recorded on tape or transcribed.
• Your notes.
• Documents or other pre-existing items.
7.6.2. Principles in qualitative data analysis
There are nine principles in the analysis of
qualitative data:
1. Collect the data in the field and study all the data
carefully to find out similarities and difference,
concepts and reflection.

2. The data analysis can be stopped only with the

emergence of regularities (Saturation and sufficiency
of information).
3. Accountability of information: Keep notes or
transcripts if readers or reviewers want to
review the data analysis procedures and
results.

4. Divide the data into smaller , more meaning

units related to your major points after reading
them all.
5. Organize the smaller units into categories
(based on major points). The process is
inductive.

6. Use comparison to build and refine categories,

define conceptual similarities, find negative
evidence, and discover patterns.
7. The categories are flexible and are modified as

further data analysis occurs.

8. Analyze negative cases to reflect their perspectives.

9. Synthesize the patterns into the grounded theory.

Code Code Code Code Code Code Code

(A) (B) (C) (B) (B) (C)

(C)

Categor1 Category 2 Category 3 Category 4

(pro 1) (pro2) (pro3) (con1)

Pattern 1 Pattern 2

Grounded
Theory
 7.6.3. Coding in Qualitative Data Analysis
 Coding: defined as marking the segments of data with
symbols, descriptive words, or category names .
o You are likely to use many codes, some general, and some
more specific.
o For instance, a general code might be 'education' and you
could use it to identify data that is relevant to education.
o A more specific code might be 'higher education

 Three types of coding:

o Open coding (First stage)
o Axial coding (Second stage)
o Selective coding (Third stage/ theoretical)

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 First stage: Open Coding
 First pass through data:
o Study field notes.
o Locate themes, assign initial codes or labels
o Themes comes from initial question, literature, or
from the data.
o Similar to a filing system
o Aim is to reduce data to manageable categories

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For example, if we were to use the following interview guide, we
would transcribe all responses underneath each question in a
WORD processing program. (Sample interview guide)
1. Can you describe how you first became aware of your deafness?

Respondent #1

Respondent #2

Respondent #3

2. How do you see yourself today, in terms of your deafness?

Respondent #1

Respondent #2

Respondent #3
2. Axial coding:

After open coding, make connection (sort)

between categories

3. Selective coding:

Select the core category (match hypotheses)

and explain the minor category (against
hypotheses) with additional supporting data.
• Coding process:

 Open coding

 Axial coding

 Selective coding
 A Visual Model of the Coding Process in Qualitative
Research
Divide text Label Reduce Collapse
Initially read
into segments segments of Overlap and codes into
through data
of information information redundancy themes
with codes of codes

Many
Many
Pages 30-40
Segments
of Text codes Codes Reduce Codes to
of Text
reduced 5-7 Themes
to 20
 Example…
• ‘X’ is an overall outstanding lecturer. One, if not the ONLY lecturer on my
course that I feel has my best interests at heart and takes an interest in her
students. ‘X’ is always networking and engaging with PR practitioners and
agencies to ensure we get the best chances of securing Work Experience or
future job vacancies. ‘X’ always encourages us to raise our chances for
employability and helps us with this through her own personal contacts as well
as arranging regular CIPR networking events - dedicating her time outside of
class. ‘X’ is fair and organised - which the whole class appreciates - and she is
able to communicate her messages well. She explains why we are being taught
a certain topic and how this will add to either our employability or personal
development. She is always looking for new ways to enhance these two areas,
and often drafts in live clients and professionals - which enables us to
experience real life simulations, as well as development of our abilities. I could
have nominated ‘X’ for 'Open door', 'outstanding feedback' or 'strongest
supervision' because she really is a fantastic influence. I think ‘X’ is a credit to
Solent and I know I would have dropped out in my second year, if it wasn’t for
her support.
 Stage 1: Initial coding
1. Outstanding
2. Best interest
3. Takes an interest
4. Networking agencies
5. Securing work experience
6. Raises chances of employability
7. Helps make new contacts
8. Arranges networking events
9. Dedicates time outside class
10. Organised
11. Communicates well
12. Explains why
13. Personal development
14. Develops abilities
15. Fantastic influence
16. Credit to university
17. Would have dropped out if not for lecturer
 Stage 2&3…
Stage 2: Axial coding
Code 1: Organisation/style of teaching: 8, 10, 11, 12, 14, 3, 7, and 2
Code 2: Skills: 1, 5, 7, 10, 11, 12, 14, and 17
Code 3: Outside of classroom behaviour: 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 17, and 13
Code 4: Employability opportunities: 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8
Code 5: Admiration of lecturer: 15, 16

Stage 3: Selective coding

 Improving employability prospects (Code 4)
 Adopting a style of teaching that moves beyond standard
academic practices/teaching (Code 1, 2, 3)
 Admiration/Respect for lecturer (Code 5)
 7.6.4. Interpret findings
• The next step involves attempting to put your data into
perspective.
• Comparing your results with what you expected, and
with your original objectives, indicators and research
questions.
• You would then summarize your main findings, under
broad headings/themes.
• Interpretation goes beyond description. It means
attaching significance to what your data is telling you,
making sense of your findings, offering explanations,
drawing conclusions and lessons learned.
 7.6.5. Writing up your findings
 What have you found? In many cases what you write
may be analytic ideas. In other cases it may be some
form of précis or summary of the data, though this
usually contains some analytic ideas.

 Make it your own!

 Ensure you evidence reliability and validity and include

your coding book in your appendix.
7.6.6. Components of qualitative analysis
results
• Organizing words or behaviors into categories,
patterns, and themes.

• Sample quotations

• Written narratives that summarize what you

found out.
7.7 Quantitative Data
Analysis

39
 Objectives:

 Distinguish two types of quantitative data analysis;

Examine parametric and non-parametric tests of

inferential statistics

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 7.7.1. Introduction
 After data have been collected, they must be organized and analysed using
various statistical tools and techniques
Flow diagram of data analysis and interpretation

Data Analysis

Interpretation
of results

Data processing:
Descriptive data
getting data ready
for analysis analysis(mean, standard Research
•Editing data deviations, frequency Discussion
question
•Handling blank distributions,
spaces correlations) , inferential answered
•Coding data
•Categorizing data data analysis
•Creating data file (hypotheses testing)
programming
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 7.7.2. Data entry
 You can enter your data:
o Manually : entering data to spreadsheet
o By computer: Entering data to computer software

 A data matrix is a table of cases and their

associated variables.
o Each unit of analysis is profiled by a particular set of
measurements on some variables.
 Data Matrix format
Respondent Age Sex Education Natal Current Ethnicity
household househol
size d size

1 27 2 3 6 4 3
2 31 1 2 3 2 1
3 . . . . . .
4 . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
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. . . . . . .
 7.7.3. Tabulation of Data: Basic concepts

 Tabulation: refers to the orderly arrangement of data in a table or

other summary format. Counting the number of responses to a
question and putting them in a frequency distribution is a simple,
or marginal tabulations.

 Example: Do you support parliamentary system?, n=450

Responses Frequency
Yes 330
No 120
Total 450

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7.7.4.Quantitative Levels of Analysis

• Univariate - simplest form,describe a case in

terms of a single variable.
• Bivariate - subgroup comparisons, describe a
case in terms of two variables simultaneously.
• Multivariate - analysis of two or more
variables simultaneously.
 Univariate Analysis
• Describing a case in terms of the distribution of
attributes that comprise it.
Example:
o Gender: - number of women, number of men.

• You should always begin your analysis by

running the basic univariate frequencies and
checking to be sure data were entered properly
 Univariate Data Analysis
• Univariate data analysis-explores each variable in a
data set separately.

o Serves as a good method to check the quality of the data

o Inconsistencies or unexpected results should be
investigated using the original data as the reference point.

• Frequencies can tell you if many study participants

share a characteristic of interest (age, gender, etc.)
o Graphs and tables can be helpful
 Univariate Analysis

• Frequency distributions

• Measures of central tendency

o Mean, Median, Mode
 Bivariate Analysis

• Describe a case in terms of two variables

simultaneously.
– Example:
• Gender
• Attitudes toward equality for men and women
• How does a respondent’s gender affect his or her
attitude toward equality for men and women?
• Cross-tabulations / Correlations
 Multivariate Analysis

• Analysis of more than two variables

simultaneously.

• Can be used to understand the relationship

between multiple variables more fully.

• Most typical: Regression analysis

 7.7.5. Methods for Quantitative Data Analysis

 The methods of quantitative data analysis include:

i) Descriptive analysis , and

ii) Inferential analysis.

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 Data analysis: Basic concepts
 Descriptive analysis: refers to the transformation of raw data in the form that will make
them easy to understand and interpret.
 Used to summarize and describe the data on cases included in a study.
 The calculation of averages, frequency distributions, and percentage distributions is the
common form of summarizing data- one form of analysis.

Type of Type of descriptive analysis

measurement

Two categories Frequency table, proportion

Nominal (percentage), mode
Frequency table, category proportion
More than two
(percentage), mode
categories
Ordinal Rank order, median + the above

Arithmetic mean + the above

Interval

Index numbers, weighted mean and

Ratio + the above
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 Descriptive analysis-Cont’d
 Descriptive statistics: gives numerical and graphic procedures to
summarize a collection of data in a clear and understandable way.
 Descriptive statistics are a way of summarizing the complexity of
the data with a single number.
• The simplest method of analysis

• The important statistical measures that are used to summarise the

survey research data are:
A.Measures of central tendency or statistical averages
B.Measures of dispersion
C.Measures of asymmetry (skewness)
D.Measures of relationship

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 Measures of Central
Tendency
The 3-M’s:
o Mode: most frequent response/ the most popular or
common value of a distribution,
o Median: mid-point of the distribution
o Mean: arithmetic average

 Which to use depends on the type of data you have:

o nominal, ordinal, interval/ratio
 Illustration
 Mode is the right tool for reporting the central
tendency of nominal level data.
Gender composition of FDRE HPR, 2010-2015
Members of HPR by gender Frequency
Male 72.7
Female 27.3

 The median is the appropriate measure of central

tendency when the set of scores we are trying to
summarize contain some extreme scores.
 When this happens, the mean won't do a good job at
representing the entire set of scores.

55
 Descriptive analysis-Cont’d
B. Measures of dispersion
• An average can represent a series only as best as a single figure can, but it certainly
cannot reveal the entire story of any phenomenon under study.
• Shows the degree by which numerical data tend to spread around an average
value/mean .
• Averages do not tell anything about the scatterness of observations within the
distribution.
• In order to measure the degree of scatter, the statistical device called measures of
dispersion are calculated.
• Important measures of dispersion are:
 Range = highest value – lowest value
• Variance
o First calculate the mean, then deduct the mean from each value in the
group, square the result and divide the result by the number of values.
• Standard deviation
o The most reliable measurement of the degree to which the data is spread
around the mean
o Putting the variance in square root
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 8.4.4. Data Presentation
• Data presentation: The process of transforming a mass of raw
data into tables and Graphs-as a part of making sense of the
data.
o refers to the preparation of data in a manner that could be used by
general audience
o Data in raw form are usually not easy to use for decision making
• Tables:
 They can be used with just about all types of numerical data.

• Graphical
• The type of graph to use depends on the variable being
summarized
• Bar chart, Histogram, pie-chart, line chart

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 Data presentation-Cont’d

Conventions important in constructing visual presentations:

1.Provide a descriptive title for each table. This
applies as well to charts, graphs, and figures.
2.Label variables and variable categories. All rows
and columns should also be fully labeled.
3. The sources of the data should be indicated.
4.All terms open to interpretation should be
defined in the footnote section below table.

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 Data Analysis-Cont’d: Inferential analysis
Inferential analysis: Beyond Descriptive analysis
 Provides procedures to draw inferences about a population from a sample.
 It is concerned with the various tests of significance for testing hypotheses
in order to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate some
conclusion or conclusions.
 It is concerned with the estimation of population values.
 It is mainly on the basis of inferential analysis that the task of interpretation
is performed.
Examples:
• The demand for a new Product X based on a sample conducted in Region Y
 The general election result based on a representative survey of voters in electoral district
Z
 Unemployment rate
• Used for drawing conclusion about the population from a
sample:
 Estimation
• Estimate true value of the parameter from a sample
 Hypothesis testing
• Determine if there is a difference in a parameter value for two groups.
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 Data Analysis: Inferential analysis
Inferential analysis:
• Inferential statistics answer the question, "To what extent can these findings be
GENERALIZED? (Can we infer that they are probably true for the whole
population, not just the sample?
 Involves using obtained sample statistics to estimate the corresponding population parameters
• Are measures of the SIGNIFICANCE of the relationship between two or more
variables.
o Significance refers to the probability that the findings could be attributed
to sampling error.
• Appropriate statistics depend on the LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT OF THE
DEPENDENT VARIABLE (and of the independent variable).

Nominal & Ordinal Interval & Ratio

 Non-parametric test • Parametric test

60
 Tests of significance
• There are two general classes of significance tests:
Parametric hypothesis testing Non-parametric hypothesis
testing
• When the data are interval-or • When data are either ordinal or
ratio-scaled (gross national nominal
product, industry sales volume)
and sample size is large •Examples: Chi-square, Mann–
• It assumes that the data in the Whitney U test, Kruskal–Wallis
study are drawn from test, Wilcoxon, Spearman rank
population with normal (bell- correlation coefficient are used.
shaped) distributions and /or
normal sampling distribution
• Examples z-test, t-test,
(ANOVA), Regression models,
Pearson coefficient, etc.
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 7.8. Data Interpretation
 Interpretation: is the process by which you put your own
meaning on the data you have collected and analyzed, and
compare that meaning with those advanced by others.
 It refers to the process of giving meaning to the data and spelling out
the implications in relation to the research questions and objectives.
 Tracing back to objectives, questions and problems
 It requires making good arguments; claims, reasons, and evidence)
 Example: over last ten years, the local temperature has increased
by 10 degree C---Claims.
o This is because of extensive deforestation (reasons) - Evidences
 Ex2: In Woreda Y of rural area, students could not sit for exam
(claim) because of peak agricultural period (reason). The
responses show that only 25% of students sat for exam--
Evidence.

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 Data Interpretation

 Interpretation:—telling the readers/audiences what

findings mean,
• Linking your findings to the findings of other research
—starts with ideas in your head and comes out in words
on paper.
•It’s a pretty qualitative exercise.
 It involves 2 terms:
• ‘Results’ – presentation of data/findings
(statistics for quantitative data ; themes for
qualitative data)
• ‘Discussion’ – interpretation of data/findings
 Data Interpretation Cont’d

 Things to consider when interpreting your data:

• Interpret findings based on the purpose and
objectives of your study
• Relate the findings to real life context
• Use persuasive language to convince your
readers to see the research from your point of
view.
• Order your interpretation to highlight the most
important findings
• Include limitations to your research.
• Use simple, clear language
 Chapter EIGHT

Writing the Research Report

By:
Terefe Zeleke (PhD)
 Chapter objectives
• Describe an appropriate format, structure and
style for the final research report;
• Grasp the appropriate format of article writing

• Discuss how to plan and design an oral

presentation of your report.

66
9.1. Components of Standard Research Report

• A report is typically made up of three main

divisions:
(1) Preliminary
(2) Body and
(3) Supplementary.
• Each of the sections contains a different kind
of contents.

67
 Table 1: Divisions and sections of a report

Broad Divisions Individual Sections

Title of Report
Approval of certificate page
Acknowledgement
(1) Preliminary material Table of Contents
List of tables and figures
List of acronyms/abbreviation/glossary
Abstract/Synopsis
Introduction------
Literature Review
(2) Body of the report Methodology of the study
Presentation, Analysis and Interpretations of data
Summary of findings, Conclusions & Recommendations
(3) Supplementary References or Bibliography
material Appendices
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 Research Report Components
 The Title
o Should be worded in such a way that it gives sufficient
information about the nature of study
 Acknowledgement
o Acknowledge all people who were directly or indirectly
supported you while working on your research
 List of tables and figures
o Provide lists of all tables, figures, graphs… used in the text
 Acronyms
o Lists of abbreviations
 Abstract/executive Summary

69
 Research Report Components—Cont’d
Abstract/executive Summary-Cont’d
• Serves two purposes:
o Short summary (capsule) of the complete content of the project
o It should contain four short paragraphs:
• What were my research questions, and why, where this important?
• How did I go about answering the research questions?
• What did I find out in response to my research questions?
• What conclusions do I draw regarding my research questions?

o In short, abstract should be short, self-confident, satisfy your reader’s

needs, convey the same emphasis as the report, and should be objective,
precise and easy to read.
 Table of Contents
o Serves as a rough guide
o Any report of several sections that totals more than 6 pages should have a table of
contents.
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 Research Report Components—Cont’d
Chapter one:Introduction
1.1. Background of the study
o Provide general information in the discipline
o Provide historical, geographical, societal facts
1.2. Statement of the problem
o Elaborates about the problem or potential gaps
o Develop key research questions
1.3. Objectives of the study
1.4. Significance of the study
o Justify the importance of the study as to how the results of his/her study will be
useful to the beneficiaries
o A wide time gap exists between the earlier study and the present one
o Lack /shortage of information on the topic - need for new knowledge
o The knowledge gap to be filling

1.5. Delimitation(scope) of the Study

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 Research Report Components—Cont’d
1.6. Limitations of the study
 Specify such mitigating factors that hinder the attainment of
the research objectives
 The possible sources of the limitations of the study include:
o Practical weaknesses in the methodologies the researcher adapted
o Lack of access to the right data
o Poor choice/development/ delivery of instruments
o Sampling restriction
o Lack of up-to-date literature in the areas
o Time and resource constraints
1.7. Organization of the Paper
o Shows what each chapter deals with in the paper.
1.8. Definition of Terms or Concepts
o The technical terms or words and phrases having special meanings

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 Research Report Components—Cont’d
Chapter Two: Review of Related Literature
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Definitions and Concepts
2.3. Theoretical, Analytical and Empirical Framework
2.4. A Brief Summary of Related Studies
2.5. Xxxxxxx
2.6. Xxxxxxx
2.7. Xxxxxxx
2.8. Xxxxxxx
2.9. Chapter Conclusion

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 Research Report Components—Cont’d
Chapter Three: Research Methodology of the study

3.1. Type of research

o Descriptive/exploratory/explanatory, Qualitative/quantitative
3.2. Sources of data: Secondary sources, Primary sources
3.3. Sampling & Population
o Sample size, Sampling techniques, All procedures to be used
o Rationales
3.4. Data gathering tools
 Procedures for Collecting Data
 Details about sampling procedure and the data collecting tools
 Questionnaire, Interview, Observation, FGD, Rationales
 How many were involved?, What was their training? How were they managed?
 When were the data collected?
 How much time did it take?
 What were the conditions in the field?
 How were irregularities handled?

74
 Research Report Components—Cont’d
Chapter Three: Research Methods/Methodology of the study-
Cont’d
3.5. Method of Data Analysis
 The methods used to analyze the data
o Data handling and processing
o Statistical tests
o Computer programs, and
o Other technical information
o The rationale for the choice of analysis
 Chapter summary/conclusion

75
 Research Report Components—Cont’d
Chapter Four: Data Analysis and Interpretation

4.1. Introduction
4.2. Profile of Respondents
4.3. Major Issues of Analysis
o Present using tables, graphs, texts… then interpret and analyze
– show the implication, support with additional data from
interview… and, support with evidences in the literature
o Logical sequence and arrangement
o Coherence and cohesiveness

4.4. Chapter Conclusion

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 Remark for Organizing “ Data Presentation, Analysis &
Discussion Chapter

• Organize the chapter based on the issues raised by basic research

questions.

• In each case (sub-section), do the following:

o Give brief explanation about the sub-heading
o Organize the data by using table (s), figure(s) or chart (s) etc.
o Undertake the analysis and interpretation for each table and
link with the main issue.
o If possible, indicate the position of your finding(s) with the
previous research work.

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 Remark for Organizing “ Data Presentation, Analysis &
Discussion Chapter
• If data are collected for one issue (for instance, on basic research
question No. 1) from different sources (questionnaire and
interview) then undertake the data presentation, analysis and
discussions under one sub-section.

o That means, you have to treat all related data under one
heading regardless of their sources (whether from secondary or
primary) and data collection instruments (whether the data
were collected through questionnaire or interview or
observation, etc.).

• Make sure that you have addressed all issues raised under basic
research questions and/or objectives of the study.

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 Research Report Components—Cont’d
Chapter Five: Summary of Findings, Conclusions and Recommendations
5.1. Summary of findings
o A brief statement of the essential findings-they state facts
o Discuss and explain the data
o Use figures
5.2. Conclusions
• Drawn from the findings
• Findings state facts while conclusions represent inferences drawn from the findings rather
you make judgement than reporting facts and where your maturity can shine through
• For each finding there should be at least one conclusion
• Should answer research questions and meet the objective of the study
• Should show:
o the implications of your findings for the current state of knowledge of the topic
o How does it add to the literature?
o Should not include new material
• Revisit the theory

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 Research Report Components—Cont’d
Chapter Five: Summary of Findings, Conclusions and Recommendations

5.3. Recommendations
o Suggests way forwards
o Suggest policy directions
o Suggests corrective actions
o Always give possible recommendations
• Further Research:
o It is useful in both academic reports and work-related reports to include a section
which shows how the research can be continued. Perhaps some results are
inconclusive, or perhaps the research has thrown up many more research questions
which need to be addressed.
o It is useful to include this section because it shows that you are aware of the wider
picture and that you are not trying to cover up something which you feel may be
lacking from your own work.

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 Research Report Components—Cont’d
References:
• Lists of books, journals, internet sources, etc
• Apply consistent style and proper citation
• Don’t forget listing all materials that you have cited in your text.

• Start your referencing section at the beginning of the writing

process and add to it as you go along.

• It will be a tedious and time consuming task if left until you have
completed the main body of the text.

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 Research Report Components—Cont’d

Appendices :
 Place for complex table, statistical tests supporting documents,
copies of forms and questionnaires.

 Keep it to the minimum.

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 9.2. Writing Journal Articles

 If you want your research findings to reach a wider audience, it

might be worth considering producing an article for a journal.
 The following steps will help you to do this:
o Choose a topical, original piece of research.
o Do your market research – find out which journal publishes
articles in your subject area.
o Check on submission guidelines – produce an article in the
correct style and format and of the right length.
o Read several copies of the journal to get an idea about the
preferences of editors.
o Produce a clear, interesting and well-written article – ask
friends, tutors or colleagues to read it and provide comments.

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Structuring Journal
article
 Structuring journal article
 Abstract: - Brief summary of the contents of the article
 Introduction - A explanation of the purpose of the study,
a statement of the research question(s) the study intends t
o address.

 Literature review: - A critical assessment of the work

done so far on this topic, to show how the current study
relates to what has already been done
 Methods: How the study was carried out (e.g. instruments
or equipment, procedures, methods to select sample, gath
er and analyze data).

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 Structuring journal article Cont’d

 Results: - What was found in the course of the study ?

 Discussion : - What do the results mean?

 Conclusion:- State the conclusions and implications of

the results, and discuss how it relates to the work
reviewed in the literature review; also, point to directions
for further work in the area .

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 9.3. Oral Presentations

 Opening—by moderator
 Introducing:
o Yourself
o the nature of the discussion
o the nature of the project (general background information)
o what it attempted to do (objective, statement of the problem
and research questions)
o how it comes about (methods and limitations)
• Findings, Conclusions, and Recommendations

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 THAT IS ALL!

WISH YOU ALL THE BEST

AND GOOD LUCK!!